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THE 


SOIL  OF  THE  FARM 


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N  \ 


NEW   YORK: 

ORANaE    JUDD    COMPAIS^Y, 

751   BROADWAY. 
1883. 


\  \ 


C  C      I 

II        I      r 


lWtAltY^O«>CUl-TU»E 


MAIH  U 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1883,  by  the 

ORANGE   JUDD    COMPANY, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  ol  Couj^ress,  at  Washington. 

\ 


PUBLISHERS'   PREFACE. 


The  improvement  of  the  soil  by  drainage  and  irriga- 
tion, and  by  liming — the  maintenance  of  its  fertility  by 
the  operation  of  our  tillage  implements — its  exhaustion 
by  cropping,  and  its  restoration  by  manuring — are  the 
proper  subjects  of  these  pages.  The  resources  of  the 
farmer,  in  the  economy  of  home  manures  and  in  the  use 
of  manufactured  and  imported  fertilizers,  are  considered 
in  detail. 

Fertility  of  course  depends  not  only  on  the  soil  but  on 
the  climate.  And  it  is  on  the  fitness  of  the  circumstances 
in  both  these  particulars  that  the  luxuriance  and  pros- 
perity of  plant  growth  rest.  The  principles  on  which 
fertility  is  dependent  may  be  the  same  in  all  climates. 
The  capability  of  obtaining  from  soil  and  air  the  building 
material  of  the  growing  plant  is  everyw^here  its  limit, 
but  it  is  the  climate  alone  which  determines  the  yegeta- 
tion  in  which  the  fertility  is  exhibited. 

Messrs.  J.  B.  Lawes,  J.  C.  Morton,  John  Scott,  and 
George  Thurber,  so  eminent  in  their  fields  of  labor,  are 
the  writers  of  these  valuable  pages. 

May,  1883. 


(3)  J-  ,y  r-  -  »7  ^ 


COKTENTS. 


-•*•- 


pAoa 
Chapter  I. 

Origin  and  Formation  of  Soils 5-10 

Chapter  IL 
Physical  Properties  of  Soils 11-15 

Chapter   III. 
Composition  and  Fertility  of  Soils ._. 16-27 

Chapter   IV. 
Soil  Improvement — Land  Drainage  and  Irrigation 28-41 

Chapter   V. 
Claying,  Liming,  Marling,  Burning _ 42-47 

Chapter  VI. 
Tillage  Operations 48-61 

Chapter   VII. 
Home  Manures. 62-82 

Chapter   VIII. 
Auxiliary  Manures -      83-97 

Chapter  IX. 
The  Loss  of  Nitrogen 99-107 


(4) 


1  )  J 


THE  SOIL  OF  THE  FARM. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ORIGIN  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS. 

Soil  and  Subsoil — Conversion  of  Rock  into  Soil — Processes  of  Weather- 
ing and  Denudation — Alluvium — Boulder  Clay — Vegetable  Mould — 
Peat. 

Soil  and  Subsoil. — The  soil  is  that  part  of  the  ground 
which  can  be  tilled  and  in  which  plants  grow.  It  is 
merely  the  upper  stratum  of  decayed  rock  mixed  with 
A^ege table  and  animal  remains.  It  varies  in  depth  from 
less  than  three  inches  to  more  than  a  foot. 

Immediately  below  the  soil  is  the  subsoil,  which  rests 
upon  underlying  rock.  The  subsoil  is  generally  more 
compact  than  the  soil,  being  less  stirred  in  cultivation; 
and  it  is  frequently  of  a  different  color.  The  principal 
difference,  however,  between  the  two  consists  in  the  greater 
amount  of  the  organic  matter  in  the  latter,  which  is 
generally  present  to  some  extent  in  both. 

The  main  distinction  between  the  soil,  the  subsoil,  and 
the  underlying  rock  consists  in  this,  that  soil  is  rotted 
subsoil  and  subsoil  is  rotting  rock.  A  vertical  section  of 
the  soil  will  generally  show  several  gradations.  The 
whole  may  be  made  up  of  five  different  layers.  There 
will  be:  (1)  A  grass  layer;  (2)  A  vegetable  soil  layer 5  (3) 

(5) 


''  6  ■  .  •   o^^,'    %  r'        THE   SOIC   OF   THE   FARM. 

^       e  o  c        c  f<     <'       (  t     t   c  f  f    r         ' 

Soil  or  rotted  subsoil;  (4)  Subsoil  or  rotting  rock;  (5) 
Underlying  rock. 

Conversion  of  Rock  into  Soil. — Various  forces  are 
active  in  this  work.  (1.)  The  atmosphere  acts  chemically 
upon  rock;  its  action  consisting  chiefly  in  the  oxidation 
of  those  minerals  which  can  contain  more  oxygen,  and  in 
the  production  of  carbonates  and  bicarbonates,  whose 
solubility  still  further  aids  disintegration.  (2.)  Changes 
of  temperature  have  a  loosening  influence  upon  rocks, 
by  causing  alternate  expansion  and  contraction.  We  see 
its  effects  in  the  way  in  Avhich,  after  a  strong  frost,  the 
soil  of  fields  and  the  material  of  roads  is  found  to  be 
loosened  and  pulverized.  (3.)  Ram  acts  both  chemically 
and  mecluinically  in  the  same  direction.  Its  chemical  ac- 
tion arises  chiefly  from  the  solvent  power  of  the  carbonic 
acid  which  it  absorbs  from  the  atmosphere,  and  which  acts 
especially  upon  rocks  containing  lime;  partly,  also,  fi*om 
its  oxygen  combining  with  substances  not  yet  fully  oxi- 
dized. Its  mechanical  action  appears  in  the  way  in  wliich 
it  washes  off  the  finer  particles  of  disintegrated  rock  or 
soil  from  higher  to  lower  ground.  (4.)  Plants  promote 
the  i^rocess  of  converting  rocks  into  soil,  both  in  their 
growth  and  in  their  decay.  Growing  plants  keep  the 
mineral  matters,  amidst  which  they  grow,  moist,  and 
enable  water  to  penetrate  and  rot  them ;  while  their  roots 
exercise  a  double  effect,  inserting  themselves  into  joints 
and  crevices,  and  thereby  causing  fragments  to  be  de- 
tached, dissolving  also  and  then  absorbing  minute  por- 
tions of  the  rock  fragments.  The  action  of  decaying 
vegetable  matter  is  still  greater.  It  absorbs  much  moist- 
ure and  keeps  all  bodies  around  it  damp;  it  is  constantly 
yielding  carbonic  acid,  which,  being  absorbed  by  the  ram 
water,  is  carried  down  through  the  soil  and  then  acts 
powerfully  upon  mineral  matters  below.  Certain  organic 
«cids  are  also    produced  during  decay,  and  these   and 


origins"  a^d  formatioi^  of  soils.  7 

their  combinations  with  potash,  soda,  and  ammonia,  act 
energetically  on  carbonate  of  lime  and  on  the  oxides  of 
iron,  and  play  a  highly  important  part  in  the  disintegra- 
tion of  various  kinds  of  rocks.  (5. )  The  burrowing  of 
earth-worms  and  other  earth- dwelling  creatures  brings 
fresh  particles  to  the  surface,  and  admits  the  passage  of 
air  and  water  to  the  subsoil. 

According  to  Darwin  the  solid  rocks  disintegrate  even 
in  countries  where  it  seldom  rains  and  wiiere  there  is  no 
frost.  And  in  conformity  with  the  views  lately  advanced 
by  De  Konnick,  such  disintegrations  may  be  attributed 
to  the  carbonic  and  nitric  acids,  together  with  the  nitrates 
of  ammonia,  which  are  dissolved  in  the  dew. 

Eocks  of  various  hardness  weather  at  different  rates. 
Many  of  the  slates  and  shales  disintegrate  rapidly.  So  do 
granite  and  gneiss.  Purely  calcareous  rocks,  however, 
weather  quickest,  the  lime  being  dissolved  out  of  them  by 
the  rain-water.  Over  some  limestone  rocks  this  gives 
rise  to  a  lime- ^^ pan"  in  the  subsoil.  The  dissolved  lime 
is  carried  down  and  often  forms,  with  other  materials 
present,  a  layer  as  of  concrete,  the  lime  acting  as  a 
cement.  The  same  power  which  dissolves  the  carbonate 
of  lime  in  solid  rocks,  dissolves  also  that  which  may  be 
diffused  through  the  soil.  In  chalk  countries  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  the  lime  wastes  is  shown  by  the  residuum 
of  flints  left  on  the  surface;  because  though  even  these 
flints  gradually  disintegrate,  they  do  not  decay  so  fast  as 
the  chalk.  In  spite  of  much  stone-picking,  these  flints 
continue  to  make  their  appearance. 

The  rocks  which  weather  with  most  ease  and  rapidity 
do  not  always  exhibit  most  soil:  often  the  reverse.  A 
pure  limestone  would  exhibit  hardly  any  weathered  band 
or  soil,  because  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  rain  would  al- 
most at  once  dissolve  and  remove  the  particles  it  acts 
upon.  Even  in  the  case  of  igneous  rocks,  the  composi- 
tion may  be  such  that  those  which  weather  most  rapidly 


8  THE   SOIL  OF  THE   FARM. 

may  not  show  the  greatest  depth  of  weathered  band  upon 
the  surface,  owing  to  the  removal  of  the  particles  as  soon 
as  disintegrated. 

Denudation. — The  same  weather  action  which  forms 
soil  is  also  wasting  or  carrying  them  away.  Soil  is  al- 
ways travelling  towards  the  sea.  It  is  deepest  in  the  val- 
ley and  thinnest  on  the  brow  of  the  hill.  The  land 
movement  consists  for  the  most  part  of  the  mere  sweep- 
ing downwards  of  its  component  particles  by  ram  or 
thawing  snow,  or  by  surface  drainage.  The  continued 
rainfall  not  only  dissolves  out  of  the  soil  a  great  deal  of 
the  soluble  matter,  but  must  eventually  remove  much  of 
the  soil  itself.  Indeed,  our  brooks  and  rivers,  after 
heavy  long-continued  rain,  show  us  by  the  yellow  muddy 
color  of  their  waters  that  they  are  carrying  a  vast  quan- 
tity of  sediment  to  the  sea.  All  this  sediment  has  come 
from  the  most  easily  washed  oft  parts  of  the  surface  soil, 
upon  which  the  rains  have  persistently  been  falling.  It 
is,  however,  the  fact  that  the  soil,  notwithstanding,  re- 
mains nearly  constant  in  quantity.  Though,  therefore, 
it  is  continually  washed  away,  it  is  augmented  from  other 
causes,  just  as  much  on  an  average  as  it  is  diminished  by 
denudation;  and  this  augmentation  evidently  can  pro- 
ceed from  nothing  but  the  constant  and  slow  disintegra- 
tion of  the  underlying  rock.  If  there  were  not  a  con- 
comitant decomposition  of  the  subsoils,  converting  them 
into  surface  soils,  the  solid  rock  would  everywhere  appear 
naked  at  the  surface,  as  is  the  case  in  mountainous  dis- 
tricts where  the  wasting  away  of  the  soil  is  more  rapid 
than  the  rate  of  decomposition  of  the  underlying  rocks. 
Even  the  tillage  and  plowing  of  arable  lands  plays  into 
the  hands  of  the  robbing  weather  action,  by  enabling  it  to 
act  more  powerfully  on  the  soil,  and  to  waste  it  in  a 
liigher  degree  than  it  could  have  done  liad  it  l)ecn  ])rotect- 
ed  by  natural  vegetation  or  by  the  grass  of  pasture  laud. 


ORIGII^   Aiq^I)   FORMATIOIS^   OF   SOILS.  9 

Alluvium. — If  no  denudation  took  place,  the  soil  of 
every  locality  would  be  simply  the  decayed  upper  surface 
of  the  rocks  underneath  it.  But,  in  proportion  to  tlie 
slope  of  the  ground  and  the  quantity  of  rain,  the  soil  is 
moved  from  higher  to  lower  levels,  so  that  m  many  cases 
a  good  soil  comes  to  lie  upon  rocks,  which  of  themselves 
would  only  produce  a  poor  soil.  During  every  fall  of 
ram,  transportation  of  soil  goes  on,  and  the  thicker  soils 
of  the  valley  are  partially  formed  in  this  way. 

The  running  water  bears  along  the  transported  matter 
and  leaves  it  when  the  force  of  the  current  diminishes  ; 
the  finer  portion  being  carried  further  ;  the  extremely 
comminuted  material  moviug  as  long  as  the  current 
moves  at  all.  When  a  river  reaches  a  level  tract  on 
which  its  motion  is  slow,  and  over  part  of  which  it  can 
flow  in  flood,  all  the  suspended  material,  consisting  of 
fine  sand  and  mud,  is  deposited  and  constitutes  the 
alluvium,  or  new  land  formed  by  such  deposits  at  the 
river  mouth. 

Marine  alluvial  soils  have  a  similar  origin.  The  rising 
tide  sweeps  away  the  fine  material  from  every  exposed 
bank  or  cliff,  and  becomes  loaded  with  mud  and  extremely 
fine  sand,  which,  as  it  stagnates  at  high  water,  it  deposits 
in  a  thin  layer  on  the  surface  of  the  flats.  This  layer, 
which  varies  in  thickness,  is  thus  coarser  and  thicker  at 
the  outer  edge  of  the  flats  than  near  the  shore. 

From  the  same  cause,  the  earlier  deposit  of  the  coarse 
sediment,  the  lower  strata  of  the  layer  are  arenaceous, 
while  the  upper  surface  is  fine  and  slimy.  Thus  the  flats 
continue  to  grow  until  they  reach  such  a  height  that  they 
can  be  overflowed  only  by  the  high  spring  tides  ;  and  they 
at  length  become  gradually  covered  w^ith  the  coarse 
grasses  and  sedges  which  grow  in  such  places. 

Drift  or  Boulder  Clay.— In  addition  to  river  and 
marine  action,  it  must  be  borne  m  mind,  however,  that 


10  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

the  abrading  agencies  of  an  ancient  glacial  period  have 
done  a  great  deal  towards  commingling  the  detritus  of 
the  different  geological  formations,  producing  wide- 
spread *^  drift"  soils  of  various  composition.  This  de- 
tritus is  far  from  being  uniformly  spread  over  the  island. 
In  some  districts  it  is  absent,  while  in  others  it  forms  a 
thick  mantle  obscuring  all  the  hard  rocks.  No  richer 
source  of  soil  could  possibly  be  mentioned,  for  our  drift- 
beds  have  been  all  formed  by  the  breaking  up  of  rocks  of 
different  geological  formations,  and  of  various  chemical 
constituents. 

It  is  no  doubt  true  that  in  regions  where  there  is  a 
thick  cover  of  '*  drift "  the  soil  has  little  or  no  relation  to 
the  solid  rocks  below  the  drift,  but  this  "  drift"  is  there 
really  the  surface  ^^^rock/'  in  the  agricultural  sense  of 
that  word  ;  so  that  there  is  no  exception  here  to  the  rule 
that,  soil  is  rotted  subsoil  and  subsoil  is  rotting  rock. 

Vegetable  Mould  is  continually  forming  wherever 
plants  grow.  It  is  the  foundation,  and  often  the  entire 
source,  of  the  organic  portion  of  the  soil.  Where  vege- 
tation is  scanty,  or  where  the  produce  of  the  soil  is  re- 
moved by  man  or  animals,  it  occurs  sparingly.  Deep 
beds  of  this  mould  are,  however,  met  with  in  forests 
under  trees,  and  on  dry  land  generally,  wherever  vege- 
tation is  rank  and  neglected. 

Peat,  like  vegetable  mould,  is  produced  by  the  slow 
decay  of  plants  and  their  remains  in  the  midst  of  water. 
The  peat  may  arise  simply  from  the  accumulation  of 
neglected  vegetable  matter  in  moist  situations.  Where 
successive  generations  of  plants  have  groAvn  and  decayed 
upon  a  soil,  the  vegetable  matter  increases  m  such  a  pro- 
portion that  tlie  soil  approaches  to  a  peat  in  its  nature ; 
and  if  in  a  situation  wliere  it  can  receive  water  from  a 
higher  district,  it  soon  becomes  spongy,  and  unlitted  for 
the  growth  of  any  but  coarse  aquatic  plants. 


PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES    OF   SOILS.  11 

Another  mode  in  which  peat  is  formed  is  by  the  gradual 
accumulation  and  decomposition  of  aquatic  plants  in 
shallow  lakes  and  stagnant  pools.  This  kind  of  peat  is  of 
a  more  loose  and  spongy  quality.  What  has  greatly  con- 
tributed to  its  formation  is  the  destruction  of  ancient 
forests,  either  by  the  operation  of  some  natural  cause,  or 
by  the  hand  of  man.  When  water  gets  collected  or  choked 
up,  as  in  a  morass  for  instance,  many  plants  contrive  to 
grow  in  it,  and  by  their  decay  form  peat — especially  the 
"  bog  moss,"  which,  while  it  grows  above,  decays  beneath. 


CHAPTER  XL 
PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES    OF    SOILS. 

Texture — Absorbent  Power — Temperature. 

Soils  differ  greatly,  not  only  in  chemical  constitution, 
but  also  in  physical  characteristics;  and,  in  our  estimate 
of  them,  we  must  be  guided  by  their  climatic  and  physical 
relations  no  less  tban  by  the  results  of  chemical  analysis. 
It  is  comparatively  easy  to  adapt  the  plant  or  crop  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  when  once  we  know  what  mineral  in- 
gredients are  required  by  the  one  and  afforded  by  the 
other;  but  it  demands  close  observation  and  a  more  dil- 
igent application  of  means  to  bring  the  physical  or 
mechanical  qualities  of  the  soil  into  the  state  most  con- 
ducive to  the  growth  of  its  natural  products.  The  nec- 
essary influence  of  mechanical  ojierations  here  becomes 
obvious,  for  the  circumstances  of  air,  moisture,  and 
w^armth,  which  are  essential  to  the  development  of  the 
changes  wliich  occur  in  the  process  of  germination,  are 
but  slightly  influenced  by  the  chemical  properties  of  the 


12  THE   SOIL  OF   THE   FARM. 

soil,  being  all  dependent  npon  its  mechanical  condition. 
And  this  influence  is  not  confined  to  the  first  stage  of 
vegetation,  for  at  no  period  of  growth  or  maturity  can 
the  plants  avail  themselves  of  their  full  amount  of  food 
unless  the  sta|;e  of  the  soil  admits  of  the  free  passage  of 
air  and  water,  and  favors  the  extension  of  the  roots  in 
all  directions. 

Texture  of  Soils. — In  this  respect  the  soil  may  vary 
from  coarse  pebbles  or  loose  sand  to  the  finest  and  most 
tenaceous  clay.  In  general,  however,  those  soils  are  best 
adapted  for  agriculture  which  consist  of  mixtures  of  sand 
with  a  moderate  quantity  of  clay,  and  a  little  vegetable 
matter.  When  sand  or  other  coarse  material  predomniates, 
the  soil  is  light  and  easy  to  till,  and  will  grow  all  the 
crops  suitable  to  the  district;  but  it  is  deficient  in  the 
power  of  retaining  water  and  the  soluble  and  volatile 
parts  of  manure.  When  clay  is  in  excess,  the  soil  is 
heavy  to  till,  and  will  probably  grow  fewer  crops;  it  is 
too  retentive  of  water,  is  not  easily  w^armed,  does  not  ad- 
mit of  access  of  air,  and  consequently  does  not  facilitate 
those  chemical  changes  in  the  soil  and  manure  placed 
in  it,  which  are  necessary  to  prepare  proper  food  for 
plants. 

Clay  lands,  whether  in  the  dry  or  WTt  state,  are  the 
most  difiicult  to  work;  sandy  soils  and  those  containing 
much  organic  matter  being  the  most  easy.  AVhen  land  is 
worked  in  a  wet  state,  we  have  not  only  to  overcome  the 
cohesiveness  of  the  particles  among  themselves,  but  at 
the  same  time  their  attachment  or  adhesion  also  to  the 
agricultural  "implements  employed.  In  a  wet  climate, 
therefore,  the  working  days  for  tillage  will  be  fewer  than 
in  a  dry  one,  and  proportionately  more  so  on  clay  soils 
than  on  liHit  soils.  Less  work  can  also  be  done  in  a  day 
with  the  same  power  on  clay  and  heavy  soils  than  on 
sandy  or  light  ones.     On  clay  lands,  a  i)air  of  horses  can 


PHYSICAL   PROPEETIES   OP   SOILS.  13 

seldom  do  the  tillage  of  sixty  acres  per  annum;  but  on 
light  soils  a  pair  of  horses  may  overtake  the  work  of 
eighty  acres  and  upwards,  except  under  very  laborious 
rotations  of  cropping. 

The  terms  light  and  heavy,  as  commonly  applied  to 
soils,  do  not  refer  to  their  actual  weight,  but  to  their 
tenacity,  and  the  degree  of  resistance  they  will  offer  to 
the  plow  or  other  implements.  Sandy  soils  are,  m 
the  farmer's  sense  of  the  word,  the  lightest  of  all  soils, 
because  they  are  easiest  to  work,  while  in  actual  weight 
they  are  the  heaviest  soils  known.  Clay,  also,  which  we 
call  a  heavy  soil,  because  stiff  and  unyielding  to  the 
plow,  is  comparatively  a  light  soil  in  actual  weight. 
Peat  soils  are  light  in  both  senses  of  the  word,  having 
little  actual  weight,  and  being  loose  or  porous. 

Absorljent  amd  Retentive  Powers  of  Soils. — If  there 
were  no  other  difference  in  soils  than  that  of  texture,  that 
which  contained  the  greatest  amount  of  finely  divided 
matter  would  possess  an  advantage  over  the  soils  with 
coarser  parts.  One  cause  of  this  superiority  consists  in 
the  greater  absorptive  and  retentive  power  which  finely 
divided  matter  possesses,  due  mainly,  in  all  probability, 
to  the  immensely  greater  quantity  of  internal  superfices 
in  a  given  bulk  or  weight  of  the  more  finely  divided  soil. 
The  ammonia  floating  in  the  atmosphere  is  continually 
being  washed  into  soils,  in  solution  with  rain-water. 
Clay,  oxide  of  iron,  and  the  organic  matter  contained  in 
the  soils,  perform  the  important  function  of  absorption. 
This  property  of  clay  may  be  one  of  the  circumstances 
,  which  render  clay  soils  better  for  wheat  than  sandy  soils. 
But,  although  clay  contains  a  larger  porportion  of  this 
absorbed  substance  than  sands  or  loams,  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  these  must  receive  from  rains  the  same 
amount  of  fertilizing  matter  as  the  clay;  only  they  have 
less  ability  for  retaining  it,  or  at  least  for  storing  it  up. 


14  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FAEM. 

The  soil,  however,  is  not  a  mere  sieve  through  which 
any  matter  in  solution  can  pass  freely.  It  has  a  power  of 
retaming,  as  in  a  filter,  many  saline  and  otiier  substances 
that  may  be  present  in  the  water  permeating  it.  The 
experiments  of  Way,  Voelcker,  and  others  have  shown 
that  when  surface  waters  charged  with  the  products  of 
vegetable  decay  are  brought  mto  contact  with  argillaceous 
sediment,  they  part  to  some  extent  wdth  their  potash, 
ammonia,  silica,  phosphoric  acid,  and  organic  matter, 
which  remain  in  combination  with  the  soil;  while,  under 
ordinary  conditions  at  least,  neither  nitrates,  soda,  lime, 
magnesia,  sulphuric  acid,  nor  chlorine  are  retained.  The 
phosphates  are  probably  retained  m  combination  with 
alumina  or  peroxide  of  iron,  and  the  silica  and  organic 
matters  also  enter  into  more  or  less  insoluble  combina- 
tions. It  follows  from  these  reactions  that  drainage- 
waters,  especially  from  clay  soils  in  a  good  state  of  jduI- 
verization,  are  found  to  carry  off  nitrates, -sulphates, 
chlorides,  or  carbonates  of  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia.  In 
light  and  sandy  soils  the  power  of  retaining  nutritive 
substances  is  less  than  in  the  case  of  heavier  soils,  or  than 
soils  having  much  vegetable  matter.  Were  it  not  for  this 
power,  the  soluble  substances  present  in  the  soil,  whether 
naturally  or  applied  in  manures,  would  often  be  speedily 
washed  out  of  it;  and  tillage  and  draining  would  much 
more  rapidly  impoverish  the  land  than  they  do,  by  allow- 
ing its  soluble  constituents  to  be  carried  off  by  water. 

The  power  of  soils  to  absorb  and  retain  moisture  is  in 
direct  ratio^ot  only  to  the  quantity  of  organic  matter  in 
the  soil,  but  also  to  the  fineness  of  the  particles  of  the  soil. 
Hence  it  becomes  important,  in  a  practical  point  of  view, 
to  secure  a  proper  degree  of  fineness  in  tlie  particles  of 
a  soil  if  it  is  to  withstand  drouth.  During  dry  weather 
plants  require  a  soil  which  is  both  absorptive  and  re- 
tentive; and  that  soil  which  is  capable  of  seizing  atmos- 
pheric moisture,  and  holding  it  when   the  atmosphere  is 


PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF   SOILS.  15 

heated,  is  one  of  the  best  constituted  soils.  But  "  stiff 
clays,  which  take  up  the  greatest  quantity  of  water,  when 
it  is  poured  upon  them  in  a  fluid  form,  are  not  the  soils 
which  absorb  most  moisture  from  the  atmosphere 
in  dry  weather;  they  cake  and  present  only  a  small  sur- 
face to  the  air,  and  the  vegetation  on  them  is  generally 
burnt  up  almost  as  readily  as  on  sands.  The  soils  that 
are  most  efficient  in  supplying  the  plant  with  water  by 
atmospheric  absorption,  are  those  in  which  there  is  a 
due  mixture  of  sand,  finely  divided  clay,  and  carbonate  of 
lime,  with  some  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  and  which 
are  so  loose  and  light  as  to  be  freely  permeable  to  the 
atmosphere.  With  respect  to  this  quality,  carbonate  of 
lime  and  vegetable  matter  are  of  great  use  in  soils;  they 
give  absorbent  power  to  the  soil  without  likewise  giving 
it  tenacity;  sand,  which  also  destroys  tenacity,  on  the 
contrary,  gives  it  little  absorbent  power."  In  accordance, 
then,  with  these  observations,  Ave  find  that  the  materials 
which  are  most  influential  in  soils  may  be  arranged  in 
the  following  order,  when  their  relations  to  moisture 
are  considered: — organic  matter,  marls,  clays,  loams,  and 
sands. 

The  Temperature  of  a  soil  depends  very  much  upon 
its  humidity.  Dry  land  absorbs  heat  more  quickly  and 
loses  it  more  slowly  than  that  which  is  wet,  and  thus  the 
summer  temperature  of  our  undrained  districts  will  be 
lower  than  if  they  had  been  drained. 

The  temperature  of  drained  land  is  in  summer  occa- 
sionally three  degrees  Fah.  above  that  of  undrained  land. 
The  greatest  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  soil 
and  the  air  occurs  in  spring,  the  soil  acquiring  the  proper 
temperature  for  the  coming  vegetation  rather  slowly,  in 
consequence  of  the  evaporation  required  in  order  to  dry 
it  sufficiently.  In  the  autumn,  it  seems  to  have  acquired 
a  stock  of  heat  which  is  sufficient  for  some  time  without 


16  THE   SOIL  OF  THE  FAIIM. 

exhaustion,  while  at  the  same  time  it  operates  favorably 
in  sustaining  the  proper  temperature  for  the  ripening  of 
later  fruits  and  other  croj^s.  The  surface  heat  is  often 
preserved,  too,  in  the  autumn  by  rain;  and  in  the  spring 
rains  aid  in  warming  the  soil.  Emmon  mentions  an  in- 
stance of  rain  whose  temperature  was  fifty-four  degrees 
falling  when  the  earth  was  fourty-nine  degrees,  and  the 
surface  was  raised  soon  after  to  fifty-one  degrees.  Dark- 
colored  soils  absorb  heat  more  rapidly  than  light-colored 
ones. 


CHAPTEE  III. 

COMPOSITION  AND  FERTILITY  OF  THE  SOIL. 

Organic  and  Inorganic  Constituents — Classification — Composition  and 
Texture — Barrenness — Fertility,  natural  and  acquired — Exhaustion 
and  Restoration  of  Fertility. 

Soil  consists  of  an  organic  and  an  inorganic  or  mineral 
part ;  and  we  have  seen  that  the  former  is  derived  from  the 
roots  and  stems  of  decayed  plants  and  from  the  manure 
and  remains  of  animals,  and  the  latter  from  the  waste  of 
the  rocks  forming  the  earth's  crust. 

Orp^anic  matter  is  most  deficient  in  sandy  soils  and 
poor  clays.  Even  in  fertile  soils,  however,  it  often  occurs 
but  sparingly.  In  one  sample  of  fertile  mould,  the  amount 
of  organic  matter  was  ascertained  to  be  only  1.7(>  per 
cent. ;  in  the  famous  black  soil  of  Russia  it  varies  from 
five  to  twelve  per  cent.  In  leaf-mould  the  amount  is 
much  greater,  and  in  peat  the  carbon  alone  sometimes  ex- 
ceeds sixty  per  cent.  The  carbon  in  tlie  soil  tends  gradu- 
ally to  oxidize  and  to  disappear,  except  where  water  ac- 


COMPOSITION   AKD   FERTILITY   OF  THE   SOIL.  17 

cumulates  and  the  climate  is  cool ;  so  t-hat  if  we  exclude 
living  roots  and  root  fibres,  there  is,  even  in  the  oldest 
pasture-land,  no  great  quantity  of  organic  matter,  not- 
withstanding the  continued  decay  of  the  roots  and  under- 
ground stems  of  plants  and  the  occasional  addition  of 
manure. 

The  Inorganic  or  illineral  portion  of  the  soil  consists 
of  the  same  substances  as  the  inorganic  part  of  plants, 
with  the  addition  of  alumina.  The  mineral  constituents 
of  soils  include  the  following  substances: — 

Silica.  Potash. 

Alumina.  Soda.  '• 

Calcic  carbonate.  Ferric  oxide. 

Phosphoric  acid.  Magnesia. 

Sulphuric  acid.  Chlorine. 

These  constituents  exist  in  very  different  proportions 
in  different  soils.  The  first  three — sand,  clay,  lime — 
represent  more  than  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  substance  of 
most  soils;  and,  as  one  or  other  of  them  prevails,  the  soil 
is  characterized  as  calcareous,  clayey,  or  sandy.  The  most 
active  constituents  of  the  soil,  however,  phosphoric  acid 
and  the  alkalies,  occur  in  very  small  quantities,  as  do  the 
other  and  less  important  constituents — magnesia,  chlo- 
rine, and  sulphuric  acid. 

Silica  exists  in  very  different  proportions  in  different 
soils,  but  chiefly  in  an  insoluble  form,  and  that  most 
largely  in  the  poorest  sands,  fertile  soils  alone  containing 
it  in  a  soluble  form.  Sandy  soils  contain  eighty  per 
cent,  and  upwards  of  silica  :  even  stiff  clay  soils  from 
sixty  to  seventy  per  cent.,  and  calcareous  or  lime  soils  and 
marls  from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent.  In  sandy  soil  there 
is  an  abundance  of  silica,  but  it  is  not  available.  In  clay 
it  is  also  abundant,  but  it  is  the  quantity  of  it  which  is 
soluble  that  determines  its  value  as  contributing  to  the 
food  or  life  of  the  plant. 

It  is  in  the  form  of  soluble  silicates  that  silica  does  its 


18  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FAEM. 

work  as  plant  food.     Its  use  in  the  form  of  sand  consists 
in  its  influence  on  the  texture  of  the  sand. 

Alumina  is  a  valuable  constituent  of  soils  as  giving  sub- 
stance and  stiffness  of  texture  to  the  soil.  In  combina- 
tion with  silica  (as  the  silicate  of  alumina)  it  is  clay.  It 
is  contained  in  greatest  proportion  in  the  stiffer  clays,  but 
it  rarely  exceeds  ten  per  cent,  of  the  whole  mineral  con- 
stituents of  a  soil.  Clay  soils  contain  on  an  average  from 
six  to  ten  per  cent,  of  alumina.  In  sandy  soils  it  varies 
from  one  to  four  per  cent. ;  and  in  marls,  calcareous  soils, 
and  vegetable  moulds  from  one  to  six  per  cent. 

The  larger  the  percentage  of  alumina  m  the  soil,  the 
more  difficult  is  its  cultivation — the  adhesive  character  of 
the  earth  offering  a  stubborn  resistance  to  the  passage  of 
the  plow  and  other  implements  through  it. 

Calcic  carbonate,  a  combination  of  lime  and  carbonic 
acid,  varies  from  about  ninety  per  cent,  in  some  marls 
and  limestone  soils  to  mere  traces  in  some  other  soils. 
Clays  and  loams  generally  contain  one  to  three  per 
cent,  of  this  substance.  Less  than  one  per  cent,  may 
be  regarded  as  a  defective  proportion.  AAliere  a  soil  is 
deficient  in  lime,  the  lime  present  exists  in  it  mostly  in 
combination  with  the  organic  acids,  and  is  more  abun- 
dant in  the  surface  than  m  the  subsoil. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  contained  in  all  good  soils,  but  only 
in  small  quantities,  when  compared  with  their  other  con- 
stituents. It  exists  in  combination  with  lime,  iron,  and 
alumina.  Phosphate  of  lime  is  its  most  common  combi- 
nation. It  is  generally  found  in  very  minute  quantities, 
but  in  clays  its  percentage  is  sometimes  more  than  one 
per  cent.  In  general,  even  very  fertile  land  contains  less 
than  this  proportion,  and  the  average  amount  is  probably 
about  a  half  per  cent.  The  supply  of  phospliates  is 
shown  by  analysis  to  be  derived  in  the  main  from  the 
rocks  themselves.  The  fossilii'erous  rocks  yield  it  most 
abundantly. 


COMPOSITION   AKD    FERTILITY    OF   THE    SOIL.  19 

Potash,  an  element  of  felspar,  is  present  in  large  quan- 
tity in  soils  derived  from  the  primitive  and  igneous  rocks. 
It  varies  in  different  soils  from  the  merest  trace  to  one  or 
two  per  cent.  Sandy  and  peaty  soils  and  marls  are  in 
general  deficient  in  this  alkali.  Soils  rich  in  alumina  are, 
with  some  exceptions,  generally  rich  in  potash.  It  exists 
in  the  soil  in  combination  with  silica,  forming  a  substance 
which  is  to  some  extent  soluble  in  water.  Soda  is  a  less 
important  constituent  in  soil  than  potash,  and,  unless 
near  the  coast,  is  present  in  even  smaller  quantity. 

Of  the  other  ingredients  which  have  been  named,  ferric 
oxide,  invariably  found  in  soils,  is  sometimes  found  in 
the  subsoil  in  injurious  forms.  The  ferric  orper-oxide, 
better  known  as  the  red  rust  of  iron,  is  its  most  favorable 
condition  in  the  soil.  In  its  less  perfectly  oxidized  form, 
soluble  in  vegetable  acids,  it  exists  in  undrained  veg- 
etable soils,  and,  on  drainage,  entering  the  pipes  with 
the  w^ater  W' hich  is  being  drawn  off,  it  forms,  on  per-oxi- 
dation  in  the  presence  of  the  air,  an  insoluble  ferric  de- 
posit, which  is  sometimes  in  quantity  sufficient  to  choke 
the  pipes.  Magnesia  is  found  in  all  fertile  soils,  in  pro- 
portions, however,  often  amounting  to  a  mere  trace. 
Sulphuric  acid  and  chlorine  occur  very  sparingly  in  most 
soils. 

Classifications  of  Soils. — In  talking  of  soils,  a  precise 
nomenclature  should  be  adhered  to  in  preference  to  local 
terms.  Otherwise  men  in  different  districts  will  often  fail 
to  understand  what  particular  kind  of  soil  is  alluded  to. 
The  most  common  classification  of  soils  is  based  on  their 
composition;  and  the  names  applied  to  them  take  after 
their  ^predominant  ingredients.  Thus  where  sand,  clay, 
lime,  or  organic  matter  predominates  in  a  soil,  it  is  sandy, 
clayey,  calcareous,  or  vegetable,  as  the  case  may  be.  A 
mixture  of  sand  and  clay  is  called  loam.  If  it  is  needful 
to  be  more  specific,  loams,  etc.,  are  designated  by  the  pre- 


20  THE   SOIL    OF   THE   FARM. 

dominance  in  them  either  of  sand,  clay,  or  lime,  as  sand 
loams,  or  clay  loams,  etc.  Soils  are  also  popularly  desig- 
nated from  their  texture  as  light  or  heavy,  porous  or  im- 
pervious; from  tlieir  relations  to  heat  and  moisture  as 
wet  or  dry,  cold  or  warm;  and  from  their  measure  of  fer- 
tility as  rich  or  poor,  fertile  or  infertile,  etc.  Again,  the 
class  of  croj^s  respectively  best  adapted  to  each,  has  led  to 
clays  being  spoken  of  as  wheat  and  bean  soils,  and  friable 
soils  as  barley  and  turnip  land. 

The  Composition  of  tlic  Soil  is  one  of  the  conditions 
on  which  the  fertility  of  a  soil  depends. 

On  this  composition  depends  its  supply  of  plant  food. 
Fertility  does  not  altogether  depend  on  the  quantity  of 
organic  matter  i^resent  in  the  soil.  There  are  some  allu- 
vial soils  nearly  destitute  of  organic  matter,  and  yet  of 
almost  inexhaustible  fertility;  and  there  are  peaty  soils 
which  are  rich  in  organic  matter,  yet  very  barren.  The 
organic  matter  of  the  soil,  however,  is  of  great  value. 
It  is  constantly  yielding  by  its  decay  matters  which 
nourish  the  organic  parts  of  the  plant,  and  it  is  setting 
free,  little  by  little,  the  earthy  matters  of  its  own  ashes. 
It  is  also,  by  its  decay,  inducing  chemical  changes  which 
tend  to  set  free  other  matters  held  in  combination  in  tlie 
particles  of  the  soil.  It  renders  clay  soil  more  friable, 
and  sandy  soils  more  retentive  of  substances  in  solution; 
and  these  are  certainly  great  uses. 

The  mineral  matter  of  the  soil  is  of  equal  importance. 
All  naturally  fertile  soils  contain  a  notable  ([uantity  of 
each  of  the  different  mineral  substances  which  have  been 
named,  which  are  indeed  essential  to  fertility,  for  a  soil 
destitute  of  any  one  of  them  is  more  or  less  barren :  fer- 
tility being  limited  by  the  minimum  of  anyone  necessary 
ingredient,  even  though  the  maximum  of  the  others  be 
present. 

However  fertile  a  soil  may  be,  not  more  perhaps  than 


COMPOSITION   AKD   FERTILITY   OF   THE   SOIL.  21 

one  per  cent,  of  its  substance  is,  at  any  moment,  in  a  fit 
condition  for  nourishiug  our  crops.  The  great  bulk  of 
it  is  unayailable  to  the  plant  at  any  one  time,  and  is  only 
slowly  liberated  by  the  action  of  air,  of  moisture,  of  heat, 
and  of  manure.  It  is  on  the  rate  at  which  this  libera- 
tion of  plant  food  takes  place  that  the  natural  fertility  of 
the  soil  may  be  said,  in  a  great  measure,  to  depend. 

A  soil  may  contain  abundance  of  phosphoric  acid, 
potash,  magnesia,  etc.,  and  yet  be  infertile,  if  these  exist 
in  the  soil  only  as  apatite,  felspar,  and  serpentine,  be- 
cause these  minerals  do  not  }ield  their  elements  to  the 
solvent  agencies  of  the  soil  or  plant  rapidly  enough  to 
furnish  the  required  amount  of  jDlant  food.  Nitrates  and 
ammonia  salts,  which  are  the  natural  sources  of  nitrogen 
to  crops,  never  need  be  present  in  the  soil  in  more  than 
the  minutest  proportion.  It  is  only  requisite  that  they 
be  gathered  or  generated  there  as  rapidly  as  crops  require 
them.  The  process  of  nitrification,  whereby  inert  or  un- 
assimilable  nitrogen  existing  in  the  soil  is  converted  into 
nitric  acid,  thus  becomes  of  tho  utmost  agricultural 
importance. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  nutritive  substances  which  are 
yielded  naturally  by  the  soil  may  be  in  a  state  so  soluble 
as  to  be  very  liable  to  waste  before  they  can  be  taken  up 
by  the  roots  of  the  growing  plants. 

Everyday  experience  proves  that  soils  differ  greatly  in 
these  respects.  Nearly  all  the  materials  which  go  to 
make  up  the  structure  of  the  earth's  crust  are  such  as  to 
aSord,  by  their  decomposition,  a  soil  fit  for  the  support 
of  vegetable  life ;  but  all  rock-formations  do  not  furnish 
equal  amounts  of  these  materials  ;  and,  while  all  soils 
have  considerable  power  of  retaining  in  their  pores  even 
the  most  soluble  substances,  some  part  with  them  too 
readily,  and  others  retain  them  too  firmly,  or  only  part 
with  them  when  exposed  to  various  preparatory  processes. 


22  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

These  differences  are  the  result  of  geological  formation, 
as  well  as  of  chemical  composition. 

A  proper  mechanical  texture  in  soils  is  also  essential 
to  fertility.  On  the  texture  of  a  soil  depends,  not  only 
its  suitableness  for  the  growth  of  different  crops,  but  like- 
wise the  rapidity  of  their  growth.  It  is  this  also  which 
regulates,  to  a  great  extent,  the  soil's  power  of  absorbing 
and  retaining  heat,  moisture,  and  manure.  To  be  fertile, 
the  soil  must  be  firm  enough  to  afford  a  proper  degree  of 
support  to  the  plants  which  grow  in  it,  and  yet  loose 
enough  to  allow  the  delicate  fibres  of  the  rootlets  to  ex- 
tend themselves  in  all  directions.  It  must  be  of  such  a 
texture  as  to  allow  the  free  access  of  air,  without  which 
plants  cannot  live  ;  and  it  must  be  close  enough  to  retain, 
for  a  considerable  time,  the  water  which  falls  on  it,  and 
at  the  same  time,  porous  enough  to  allow  the  excess  to 
drain  away.  In  this  respect,  the  nature  of  the  subsoil 
and  the  depth  of  the  surface  soil  are  both  of  them  im- 
portant. AYhen  a  soil  rests  immediatcl}^  upon  a  bed  of 
rock  or  gravel,  it  will  be  naturally  drier  than  where  the 
subsoil  is  of  clay  and  marl.  On  the  other  hand,  a  clay 
subsoil  may  be  of  macerial  advantage  to  a  sandy  soil,  by 
enabling  it  to  retain  moisture  longer  in  dry  weather. 

For  the  fertility  of  a  soil  depends  not  only  on  its  com- 
position— not  only  its  wealth  as  a  full  storehouse  of  what 
the  growing  plant  needs  as  food,  but  on  its  efficiency  as 
a  laboratory  in  which  the  materials  thus  required  are 
prepared  for  use.  And  it  is  in  its  relations  to  the  water 
which  is  the  great  carrier  to  and  fro  of  the  ingredients 
which  are  at  once  the  chemicals  in  this  laboratory  and 
the  food  in  this  storehouse  that  the  efficiency  of  a  soil  in 
both  these  characters,  and  therefore  its  fertility,  very 
materially  depends.  Unless  there  be  a  sufficiently  free 
passage  for  the  rain-water  throughout  the  substance  of 
the  soil,  neither  will  the  food  of  plants  be  properly  pre- 


COMPOSITION   AKD    FERTILITY    OF   THE   SOIL.  23 

pared,  nor  the  stationary  roots  of  plants  be  fed.  It  is  in 
the  great  change  thus  introduced  into  water-logged  soils 
by  land  drainage  that  its  extraordinary  power  as  a  fer- 
tilizing agency  depends,  to  which  reference  is  made  in 
another  chapter. 

The  relative  fertility  of  a  soil  is  further  dependent  on 
the  climate  wherein  it  lies.  Disregard  of  local  conditions 
as  to  rainfall,  temperature,  aspect,  height  above  the  sea, 
and  other  necessary  circumstances,  may  lead  to  very  erro- 
neous estimates  of  the  value  of  soils.  They  may  be  the 
same  in  composition  and  texture,  and  yet  diifer  greatly 
in  value.  Nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  the  amount 
of  rain,  and  the  season  of  its  descent,  determine  in  a 
great  degree  the  nature  of  the  husbandry  of  the  place, 
and  the  value  of  its  soil  for  agriculture.  The  temperature 
of  the  air  in  any  particular  locality  has  an  important 
bearing  upon  the  actual  productiveness  of  the  soil,  what- 
ever may  be  its  composition  and  texture,  and  however 
propitiously  the  rain  may  fall  upon  it.  Other  things 
being  equal,  we  should  expect  that  sheltered  situations, 
with  a  good  southern  aspect,  would  be  those  in  which  we 
should  find  the  capability  of  any  given  soil  best  exhibited. 
But  though  soil  and  rain  and  duly-tempered  warmth 
favor  us,  these  and  many  other  considerations  besides, 
may  fail  to  determine,  in  every  case,  whether  this  or  that 
plant  may  be  grown  within  particular  limits.  That  also 
depends  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  its  proper  food, 
and  it  is  here  that  art  is  available  for  meeting  the  defects 
of  nature. 

Causes  of  Barrenness. — They  are  of  course  the  converse 
of  those  of  fertility.  The  soil  may  be  empty,  considered 
as  a  storehouse  of  plant  food,  or  locked  up  in  stagnant 
water,  and  thus  incapable  as  a  laboratory  in  which  that 
food  is  prepared.  There  are,  however,  special  causes  of 
infertility.  This  may  arise  from  the  soil  containing  some- 


24  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

tiling  injurious  to  vegetation ;  sucli  as  an  excess  of  organic 
acids,  or  the  presence  of  small  quantities  of  sulphate  of 
iron  or  other  poisonous  ingredients.  It  may  also  be  due 
to  an  excess  of  otherwise  valuable  ingredients,  such  as 
organic  matter,  sand,  lime,  or  even  clay.  In  the  strict 
meaning  of  the  word  no  soil,  unless  it  contains  some 
substance  poisonous  to  plants,  is  absolutely  barren ;  but 
one  may  call  a  soil  barren  which  will  not  produce  such 
plants  as  the  farmer  cultivates.  Such  a  soil  may  be 
made  fertile  by  adding  to  it  the  substances  in  which  it  is 
deficient ;  but  if  this  cannot  be  done  except  at  a  cost  as 
great  or  greater  than  that  for  which  fertile  soil  can  be 
procured,  the  soil  may  be  regarded  as  practically  worth- 
less. 

Natural  and  acquired  Fertility. — The  distinction  here 
must  not  be  forgotten.  Sir  James  B.  Lawes  in  discussing 
this  subject,  writes  thus  :  '^  The  natural  fertility  of  a  soil, 
whether  high  or  low  in  degree,  is,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, a  permanent  quality ;  it  can  only  be  injuiiously 
affected  by  the  continuance  of  an  exhaustive  system  of 
cropping  for  a  long  period  of  time ;  it  is  the  property  of 
the  landlord ;  and,  excepting  in  the  case  of  very  light 
soils,  it  is  the  chief  element  in  determining  the  rent- 
nature  of  the  land.  Acquired  fertility,  or  ^condition,' 
as  it  is  termed,  is  a  quality  distinct  from  the  natural 
fertility  of  soil ;  it  is  due  to  the  accumulation  within  the 
soil  of  manure  matters  which  may  be  withdrawn  or  re- 
duced by  cropping  within  a  comparatively  short  period 
of  time.  It  is  a  quality  dependent  on  the  capital  ex- 
pended by  the  tenant  in  the  purchase  of  cattle  food  or 
manures,  and  is,  therefore,  his  property."  But,  as  the 
proverb  has  it,  "  Nature  passes  Nurture ; "  and  a  soil 
which  is  naturally  fertile  is  better  than  one  which  is  fer- 
tile only  by  the  help  of  manure. 

''The  fertility  of  a  soil  may  be  expressed,"  according 


COMPOSITION   AND   FERTILITY   OF  THE   SOIL.  25 

to  Caircl,  ^*  by  examples  taken,  first,  in  the  natural  state 
of  pasture,  and  secondly,  in  similar  soils  after  treatment. 
The  maximum  of  fertility  in  the  natural  state  is  a  rich 
pasture  capable  of  fattening  an  ox  and  two  sheep  on  an 
acre.  Such  soils  are  exceptional,  though  in  most  counties 
they  are  to  be  met  with  ....  The  minimum  of  fertility 
may  be  exemplified  by  a  bleak  mountain  pasture,  where 
ten  acres  will  barely  maintain  a  small  sheep. 

The  artificial  maximum  or  minimum  which  results 
from  the  treatment  of  soils  of  the  same  quality  is  more 
instructive,  and  may  be  clearly  exemplified  by  taking  two 
of  the  experiments  which  have  been  carried  on  by  Mr. 
Lawes  of  Rothamsted  for  the  last  thirty  years.  Con- 
fining the  comparison  to  the  average  of  the  last  twelve 
years,  the  following  was  the  weight  in  pounds  of  an 
average  crop : — 

Corn, 
lbs. 

Wheat,  grown  continuously,  without  manure 730 

"  "  ^'  with  special  manure.. 2,340 

The  soils  here  are  exactly  similar  and  in  the  same 
field,  strong  land  on  clay  with  a  substratum  of  chalk. 
The  management  is  the  same,  in  so  far  as  culture  is  con- 
cerned; both  crops  are  kept  equally  clean  and  free  from 
weeds;  the  same  seed  is  used,  and  they  are  exposed  to  the 
same  changes  of  weather.  The  only  difference  is,  that  in 
the  one  case  nature  has  for  thirty  years  been  unassisted 
by  manure,  and  in  the  other  the  soil  receives  every  year 
the  various  kinds  of  manure  which  have  been  found  most 
suitable  to  the  crop.  The  result  of  this  treatment  is  a 
return  of  three  times  the  weight  of  corn  and  four  times 
the  weight  of  straw,  for  an  expenditure  of  manure  which 
leaves  a  profit  of  one  hundred  per  cent,  on  its  cost.  In 
both  cases  the  wheat  is  grown  continuously  year  after  year. 

Exhaiistiou  of   Fertility.— The  effect  of   continued 
2 


straw. 

Total, 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1,120 

1,850 

4,928 

7,268 

26  THE   SOIL   OF  TnE   FARM. 

cropping,  without  manuring,  is  to  reduce  the  stock  of 
available  fertility  in  the  soil.  But  since  it  is  the  minimum 
of  any  one  essential  ingredient  and  not  the  maximum  of 
the  others  which  is  the  measure  of  fertility,  it  follows 
that  a  soil  which  is  exhausted  for  one  plant  may  still 
contain  an  abundant  food  suj^ply  for  a  plant  of  another 
kind.  A  rotation  of  crops  will  in  such  case  defer  the 
period  of  exhaustion.  But  whatever  the  crops  cultivated, 
it  is  plain  that  continued  croppmg  without  the  use  of 
manures  must  ultimately  bring  us  to  a  time  when  the 
crops  grown  will  no  longer  pay  the  cost  of  cultivation. 

The  particular  substance  on  which  the  crops  grown 
have  made  the  largest  demands,  and  which  was  originally 
most  deficient  in  the  soil,  will  be  the  first  to  become  ex- 
hausted. Further,  the  more  available  substances  will  be 
removed  while  the  less  soluble  will  remain  behind;  a  poor 
soil  will  be  reduced  to  sterility  sooner  than  a  rich  one  ;  a 
shallow  soil  will  fail  sooner  than  a  deep  one  ;  and  a  light 
soil  sooner  than  a  stiff  one.  All  soils,  however,  are  ca- 
pable of  yielding  annually  from  their  stores  of  natural 
fertility  a  certain  amount  of  produce,  and  this  constant 
abstraction  of  their  substance  is  not  necessarily  incon- 
sistent with  the  maintenance  of  fertility ;  for,  indepen- 
dently of  the  small  quantity  of  vegetable  food,  so  to 
speak,  available  for  use  at  any  one  time,  an  immense 
store  resides  in  most  soils  in  a  dormant  condition,  capable 
of  gradual  development  as  it  is  required. 

Restoration  of  Fertility, — As  cropping  removes  these 
substances  from  the  soil,  they  are  replaced  more  or  less 
rapidly  and  completely  by  the  agencies  of  the  weather. 
The  action  of  earth-worms  is  also  useful  m  this  respect, 
for  it  is  as  soil-fertilizers  rather  than  as  soil-formers  that 
earth-worms  are  of  imiiortance  to  auriculture.  Indeed, 
they  are  rarely  met  with  in  soils  that  are  very  destitute 
of  organic  matter.     The  richer  the  soil,  however,  and 


COMPOSITION   AKD   FEETILITY   OF  THE    SOIL.  27 

the  more  it  is  manured,  the  more  numerous  they  are. 
Their  action  as  soil-fertiHzers  consists  in  swallowing 
earth,  leaves,  and  organic  matter  of  all  kinds,  triturating 
it,  converting  it,  and  then  ejecting  it  over  the  surface  of 
the  field.  In  this  way  they  very  soon  effect  a  complete 
mversion  of  the  soil  down  to  a  certain  depth,  especially 
on  meadow  land,  which  is  left  undisturbed  to  their  opera- 
tion. They  even  make  additions  to  the  soil  by  bringing 
up  fresh  matter  from  the  subsoil.  Every  time  a  worm  is 
driven  by  dry  weather  or  any  other  cause  to  descend  deep, 
it  brings  to  the  surface,  when  it  empties  the  contents  of 
its  body,  a  few  particles  of  fresh  earth.  At  the  same  time 
it  fertilizes  the  subsoil,  by  opening  up  passages  wiiich  en- 
courage the  roots  of  plants  to  penetrate  deeper,  these 
passages  being  lined  with  excreted  matter  which  provides 
a  store  of  nourishment  for  the  roots.  On  meadow  land, 
Darw^in  found  these  worm-casts  amount  annually  to 
eighteen  tons  per  acre,  and  on  good  arable  land  to  about 
ten  tons.  Dr.  Gilbert  has  analysed  worm-casts,  and 
found  them  to  contain  .34  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  which 
is  several  times  more  than  is  found  m  ordmarv  soils. 
Ten  tons  of  these  castings  will  thus  yield  eighty  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  or  as  much  as  is  contained  m  two  acres  of  a 
wheat  crop. 

By  various  artificial  means,  tillage,  drainage,  clay- 
burning,  the  application  of  lime,  or  manures,  the  pro- 
cesses of  natural  soil-renovation  may  be  greatly  accel- 
erated. And  these  are  the  subjects  of  the  remaining 
chapters  of  this  book.  But  it  is  plain  from  the  natural 
influences,  as  well  as  the  artificial  operations,  to  which 
soils  are  amenable,  that  there  is  hope  for  almost  any 
soil — that  in  few  cases  can  land  be  so  run  out  as  to  re- 
quire the  direct  supply  of  all  the  substances  which  are 
needed  to  create  fertility,  for  many  of  them  are  already 
pa-esent,  and  it  only  requires  a  little  skillful  management 
to  exhibit  them.    It  is  on  this  principle  that  we  must  ex- 


28  THE   SOIL   or  THE   FAKM. 

plain  the  ])ractice,  often  to  be  seen,  of  allowing  worn  out 
land  to  rest  for  a  while  after  a  long  period  of  mismanage- 
ment has  exhausted  its  fertility.  The  success  of  this  ex- 
pedient, however,  does  not  justify  the  practice,  which  is 
obviously  most  wasteful  both  of  time  and  means.  The 
amount  of  active  fertility  in  the  soil  ought,  by  a  judicious 
system  of  cropping  and  consumption  on  the  farm,  to  be 
made  nearly  to  reproduce  itself  year  by  year  ;  and  the 
gradual  development  of  that  which  lies  dormant,  instead 
of  acting  as  a  sinking  fund  to  wipe  out  the  evils  of  past 
mismanagement  would  then  go  annually  to  increase  the 
fertility  of  the  land. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

IMPROVEMENT   OF   SOILS.  —  DRAINAGE   AND   IRRI- 
GATION. 

Land-Drainage — objects,  process,  results,  expense  and  profit.— Irrigation 
— object  aimed  at,  methods  adopted,  results. — Sewage  irrigation. 

Land  Drainage. — AVhatever  the  composition  or  natural 
capability  of  a  soil,  its  fertility  depends  materially  upon 
its  relations  to  the  water  which  falls  upon  it.  If  the  rain- 
water has  free  access  throughout  it,  free  passage  through 
it,  not  only  are  ingredients  added  which  the  roots  ab- 
sorb for  the  nourishment  of  the  plant,  but  these  in- 
gredients are  available  in  the  laboratory  of  the  soil  for 
those  purposes  by  which  i)lantfo()d  is  manufactured  from 
the  material  of  soil  itself  and  from  the  manure  added  to 
it ;  and,  above  all,  the  full  use  is  obtained  of  a  necessary 
carrier  of  ])1  ant  food  l)y  the  hungry  moutlis — theabsorl)e«t 
ends  of  root-Iibres  to  whith   it  must  be  brought.     Upon 


IMPROVEMEIs^T   OP   SOILS.  29 

the  permeability,  as  well  as  on  the  composition  of  a  soil, 
its  fertility  is  thus  very  materially  dependent ;  and  land 
drainage,  eitlier  natural  or  artificial,  is  essential  to  it. 

When  there  is  fn  excess  of  water  in  a  soil,  and  no  pro- 
yision  exists  for  withdrawing  it,  the  interstitial  canals 
become  completely  filled,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  necessary 
amount  of  air  on  which  the  activity  of  the  soil,  considered 
as  a  laboratory  for  the  provision  of  plant  food  depends. 
When  the  soil  is  drained,  the  superfluous  water  flows  off 
through  the  air  canals,  and  only  so  much  moisture  is  re- 
tained as  can  be  absorbed  by  the  minuter  pores  within 
the  small  particles  of  earth  ;  and  as  there  is,  then,  free 
communication  through  these  canals  between  the  pores 
and  the  drains,  it  is  evident  that  the  water  will  all  be 
withdrawn  from  the  soil  except  that  which  is  held  by 
capillary  attraction.  Thus  the  rain,  which  falls  upon 
and  is  absorbed  by  the  surface-ground,  percolates  towards 
the  drainage  level,  flushmg  every  crevice  and  canal  in 
its  descent,  leaving  behind  it  the  nutritive  ingredients 
which  it  carries  in  suspension  or  in  solution,  and  on 
which  the  plants  can  feed  as  it  passes  by  their  roots,  or 
which  the  soil,  acting  as  a  filter,  extracts  and  appro- 
priates. 

The  object  of  land-drainage  is  not  merely  to  render  wet 
ground  sufficiently  dry  for  tillage  operations,  but  so  to 
regulate  the  passage  of  moisture  that,  while  the  soil 
shall  have  every  facility  for  absorbing  the  necessary 
quantity,  stagnation,  and  the  consequent  starvation  of 
the  plants,  shall  be  prevented.  Almost  all  lands  require 
it,  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  there  are  few  fields  which 
can  be  economically  cultivated  without  draining  some 
portion  of  them. 

The  causes  which  wet  the  soil  of  any  field  requiring 
drainaore  must  first  be  considered  ;  when  these  are  under- 
stood,  it  will  be  easy  to  decide  upon  the  best  means  of 
providing  a  remedy.    But  in  this  consideration  the  strata 


30  TnE  SOIL  or  the  farm. 

of  the  district  must  be  taken  into  account,  as  well  as  the 
contonr  of  the  surface,  and  the  texture  of  the  soil  and 
subsoil  of  the  particular  field. 

If  the  surface  of  the  ground  be  leyel/  and  the  structure 
of  the  soil  uniform,  the  drains  may  be  arranged  at  regular 
intervals  apart,  with  the  feeders  at  right  angles  to  the 
mains,  and  the  necessary  slojoe  must  be  gained  by  cutting 
upwards  from  a  sufficiently  deep  outfall.  In  any  case  the 
mains  must  be  placed  at  the  lowest  level,  delivering  into 
a  ditch  or  brook,  and  the  minor  drains  should  run  into 
them  in  the  direction  of  the  inclination  of  the  ground. 
When  the  inclination  of  the  surface  varies,  though  there 
should  be  sufficient  fall  for  discharge  if  the  drains  were 
cut  throughout  to  a  uniform  depth,  yefc  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  a  sufficient  uniformity  of  fall  in  the  pipes  to 
hinder  any  risk  of  a  deposit  of  mud  in  any  part  of  their 
course. 

If  the  substrata  consists  of  layers  of  various  retentive 
l")ower,  their  relative  positions  must  be  regarded  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  drains.  Instead  of  following  rigid 
rules  for  fixing  the  proportionate  depths  and  distances 
of  drains  in  light  and  heavy  soils,  we  must  determine 
these  points  by  reference  to  the  thickness  and  order  of 
the  substrata  no  less  than  by  the  character  or  texture  of 
the  soil  itself. 

Practically  these  are  determined  by  digging  holes  four 
feet  deep  here  and  there  in  a  field  and  taking  a  drain  of 
the  intended  depth  up  the  field  in  their  neigliborhood. 
The  holes  will  fill  with  water  if  the  land  needs  draining  ; 
and  the  effect  of  the  drain  in  emptying  them  at  distances 
of  three,  five,  seven  yards,  etc.,  will  indicate  twice  that 
measure  as  the  proper  interval  to  be  adopted  between  the 
drains. 

If  the  up]ier  bed  be  retentive,  and  of  such  depth  that 
the  drains  cannot  be  cut  completely  throngh  it,  the  best 
system  to  ado2)t  will  be  that  of  comparatively  shallow 


IMPROYEMEN^T   OF   SOILS.  31 

drains  at  close  intervals ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  a  pervious 
material  should  have  deeper  drains  at  Avider  intervals.  If 
a  thin  bed  of  clay  rests  upon  a  porous  substratum,  the 
drains  may  be  cut  into  the  latter,  or  through  it,  accord- 
ing to  its  depth ;  and  they  must  then  be  laid  at  fre- 
quent intervals.  When  the  case  occurs,  as  it  sometimes 
does,  that  a  free  supersoil,  about  three  feet  in  depth,  over- 
lies a  comparatively  thin  bed  of  clay,  it  is  often  advisable 
to  limit  the  depth  of  the  drains  to  that  of  the  porous 
bed.  When  springs,  which  are  fed  from  a  higher  level, 
lie  immediately  below  a  clay  substratum  which  exceeds 
the  practicable  depth  of  the  drains,  recourse  may  be  had 
to  tapping,  by  means  of  an  auger-hole  or  vertical  bore, 
which  will  open  communication  to  the  drains,  by  which 
the  contents  of  the  spring  may  be  carried  off,  and  the 
liability  to  mischief  caused  by  their  bursting  forth  at  a 
lower  level  will  be  prevented. 

The  drainage  of  deep  and  wet  boggy  land  is  a  gradual 
process,  requiring  sometimes  years  of  patience  before 
success  is  attained.  Frequent  open  ditches  should,  at 
first,  be  cut  as  deep  as  the  sides  will  stand,  and  then 
gradually  deepened  as  the  land  subsides,  taking  care 
always  to  keep  them  well  cleaned  out.  When  the  land 
has  become  sufficiently  consolidated,  the  usual  pipe 
drains  may  be  put  in,  but  they  should  be  laid  rather  be- 
yond the  depth  which  would  be  thought  necessary  in  a 
firmer  soil  of  the  same  nature.  If  the  moss  will  not 
carry  the  ordinary  pipes,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  use 
collars  with  them,  in  order  to  prevent  their  displacement. 

Marshes,  and  oven  lakes,  which  occupy  a  bowl-shaped 
cavity,  rendering  drainage  by  the  ordinary  means  im- 
practicable, have  often  been  successfully  drained  by  bor- 
ing or  digging  through  the  impermeable  surface  layer 
where  it  is  not  thick,  and  rests  upon  a  porous  substratum 
of  sufficient  depth  to  receive  the  water  and  drain  it  from 
the  surface.     But  this  method  must  not  be  tried  without 


32  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

due  attention  to  the  disposition  of  the  sectional  strata  of 
the  district,  for  the  porous  soil  may  be  surcharged  Avith 
water  from  a  higiier  level,  and  the  proposed  cure  might 
only  prove  an  aggravation  of  the  existing  evil.  In  tluit 
case  the  object  may  be  obtained  by  cutting  a  deep  ditch 
or  canal  through  the  bank  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of 
the  lake. 

In  ordinary  practice  it  is  the  texture  of  the  soil  and 
subsoil,  and  the  nature  or  the  slope,  which  determine 
the  proper  depth  and  distance  of  drains.  Deep  drains 
are  longer  in  beginnmg  to  flow,  but,  if  the  soil  is  porous, 
they  will  carry  off  the  surface  water,  after  heavy  rains, 
sooner  than  shallow  drains.  They  also  drain  a  greater 
bulk  of  the  soil,  and  allow  the  water  time  to  deposit  the 
particles  of  mould  and  manure  which  it  carries  down  from 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

In  an  open  soil,  which  the  water  penetrates  freely,  the 
drain  will  draw  from  long  distances  if  the  depth  is  great; 
but  in  stiff,  compact  soils,  percolation  is  more  difficult, 
and  the  drains  will  draw  from  a  smaller  distance  than  in 
free  and  open  soils  where  the  water  finds  a  ready  escape. 
Ko  amount  of  'depth  Avill  compensate  for  excessive  dis- 
tance on  a  compact  soil,  because  the  material  either  re- 
sists the  passage  of  the  water  altogether,  or  the  removal 
is  so  slow  that  the  drainage  is  worthless. 

The  requirements  of  vegetation  must  also  be  considered 
in  determining  the  proper  depths  of  drains;  and  the 
depths  to  which  the  rootlets  of  the  plants  penetrate  may 
afford  some  indication  of  how  far  the  free  sul)jacent  water 
should  be  permitted  below  the  surface.  As  its  availability 
for  their  supply  will  be  regulated  by  the  porosity  of  the 
soil,  the  bottom  (5f  the  drains  may  be  at  a  less  distance 
from  the  roots  on  a  heavy  soil  than  on  a  light  one.  In 
dry  summers,  grass-land,  especially,  is  sometimes  liable 
to  injury,  owing  to  the  land  being  dried  below  the  root- 


IMPROYEMEKT   OF   SOILS.  33 

lets,  which  the  capillary  power  of  the  soil  is  thus  unable 
to  feed. 

Another  circumstance  which  will  occasionally  haye  an 
influence  in  regulating  the  depth,  is  the  degree  of  slope 
which  can  be  obtained,  according  to  the  surface-levels  of 
the  district.  Theoretically,  water  will  flow  if  there  is 
but  the  smallest  possible  deviation  from  a  horizontal  line, 
but  in  j^ractice  this  is  not  sufficient,  for  it  imjolies  a 
perfectly  smooth  and  regular  bed,  a  condition  which  can- 
not be  expected  to  exist  in  land-drains.  The  water 
should  not  pass  too  quickly  through  the  soil,  before  it 
has  time  to  deposit  its  nutritive  ingredients,  but  neither 
should  it  be  allowed  to  stagnate,  as  it  will  do  if  the 
drains  are  deeper  than  it  can  readily  permeate,  or  if  the 
fall  is  insufficient  to  induce  a  free  discharge.  When  the 
drains  are  sufficiently  active  they  will  not  allow  the  water 
to  stand  for  any  length  of  time  on  the  surface  after  the 
most  heavy  rains. 

For  purposes  of  cultivation  the  drains  should  seldom, 
if  ever,  be  laid  at  a  less  depth  than  three  feet  from  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  In  grass-lands  two  and  one-half 
feet  may  be  sufficient,  but  where  other  circumstances  are 
favorable,  three  feet  should  be  the  minimum  depth. 

The  laying  of  the  pipes  should  be  entrusted  to  a  careful 
workman,  who  is  paid  days'  wages,  as  more  attention  in 
the  performance  of  the  work  is  thus  insured  than  when  it 
is  done  by  the  drainer  at  piece-work. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  pij^es  should  be  large 
enough  for  the  quantity  of  water  they  have  to  discharge. 
If  the  fall  is  considerable,  a  pipe  of  less  dimensions  will 
suffice  than  where  the  inclination  is  smaller.  In  j^ractice, 
after  the  depth  and  interval  of  the  intended  drainage  have 
been  determined  bv  trial  holes  in  the  manner  described, 
and  after  any  particular  sjorings  of  water  have  been  dealt 
with  by  special  conduits  taken  through  the  wet  spots 
thus  created,  and  after  all  old  water  channels  have  been 


34  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

furnish 0(1  with  pipes  laid  at  suflficieiit  depths,  and  prop- 
rly  iillad  in — the  systematic  drainage  of  a  field  which 
needs  the  operation  is  begun  at  the  lowest  level  in  it. 
The  ditch  is  cleaned  out  by  which  the  water  is  to  escape. 
The  main  drain  is  dug  (from  a  point  six  to  eight  inches 
above  the  botton  of  the  ditch)  along  the  lower  edge  of 
the  field  parallel  with  its  side,  from  which  it  may  be 
distant  five  yards  or  more,  and  as  deep  (to  at  least  four 
feet)  as  possible.  Into  this  drain  the  minor  drains  de- 
liver over  the  top  of  the  four  to  six-inch  pipes  which 
are  placed  in  it.  These  minor  drains,  at  the  depth 
which  has  been  resolved  upon,  are  taken  right  np  the 
slope,  unless  it  be  very  steep,  and  two-inch  pipes  are 
placed  in  them.  If  the  field  is  more  than  two  hun- 
dred yards  long,  there  should  be  a  second  main  drain 
crossing  it  midway  of  its  length,  into  which  the  upper 
series  of  minor  drains  deliver.  The  i^ipes  should  be 
carefully  placed  and  carefully  covered  with  the  earth 
taken  out.  It  is  not  necessary  to  put  straw  or  turf  over 
them  before  the  earth  which  has  been  taken  out  is  re- 
placed. If  there  is  any  considerable  remainder  of  the 
earth,  it  should  be  spread  on  the  land,  all  stones  being 
removed ;  and  the  turf,  which  in  pastures  has  been  first 
dug  out,  should,  as  soon  as  the  earth  has  settled  suffi- 
ciently, be  replaced  and  rolled  down  ;  and  the  work  may 
then  be  considered  complete.  It  will  often  be  possible 
to  economize  the  labor  by  sending  a  plow  along  the  line 
of  each  drain  to  turn  out  the  first  six  inches,  by  horse- 
power. A  double  furrow  will  be  necessary  to  open  up 
the  work  efficiently  ;  and  in  the  case  of  grass-lands  the 
plowing  will  be  more  effective  if  it  be  not  too  deep. 
And  then  these  furrow  slices,  thrown  out  on  cither  side 
without  being  detached  from  the  land,  can  be  brought 
together  over  the  finished  drain  and  rolled  down.  But 
the  operation  cannot  be  considered  com])lete  without 
careful  provision  for  its  permanence  by  a  2)ro2)erly  built 


IMPROYEMEKT   OF   SOILS.  35 

outfall.  The  last  pipe  of  the  main  should  pass  through 
brickwork  whose  foundation  is  laid  below  the  level  of 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  it  should  be  protected  by  a 
flap  or-  gird.  And  the  exit-water  should  fall  from  this 
opening  on  to  a  slab  of  stone  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  so  as  to  hinder  any  risk  of  undermining  the  brick- 
work by  its  continual  fall. 

The  cost  per  acre  of  land-draining  is  more  generally 
covered  by  the  consequent  increased  value  of  the  land, 
than  that  of  any  other  agricultural  improvement.  What- 
ever the  interval  or  depth,  the  expense  depends  on  the 
character  of  the  soil  or  subsoil,  the  local  rate  of  wages, 
the  cost  of  the  tiles,  and  the  distance  of  the  kiln. 

In  all  cases  it  will  be  understood  that  the  end  desired 
is  the  nearest  possible  approach  to  the  natural  examples 
of  the  best  soil  resting  on  pervious  subsoils,  where  the 
rainfall  finds  a  gradual  passage  through  the  soil  and  sub- 
soil, sinking  always  where  it  falls,  carrying  the  generally 
warmer  temperature  of  the  air  into  the  land — carrying 
also  many  an  element  of  plant  food,  which  the  air  con- 
tains, directly  to  the  roots  of  plants — carrying,  too,  the 
air  itself,  the  great  oxidizer,  amidst  the  matters  organic 
and  inorganic  which  require  its  influence  for  their  con- 
yersion  into  available  plant  food — proving,  by  its  action 
as  a  solvent,  and  its  passage  over  the  immense  inner 
superficies  of  the  soil,  an  active  caterer  for  the  stationary 
roots.  At  the  same  time  it  is  hindered  from  doing  the 
mischief  which  on  undrained  land  the  rainfall  cannot  fail 
of  doing.  The  manure  particles  of  the  soil,  if  they  do  to 
some  extent  escape  through  drainage,  are  at  any  rate  not 
washed  wholesale  from  the  surface  into  the  furroAvs  and 
ditches,  which  in  the  case  of  undrained  land  receive 
them  without  the  subsoil  having  had  a  chance  of  retain- 
ing them. 

Irrigation* — This,  which  at  first  seems  the  exact  con- 


36  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

yerse  of  land  drainage,  is  but  another  example  of  tlie 
fertilizing  use  of  water  when  properly  employed.  In 
both  cases  it  is  the  passage  of  water  through  the  soil 
which  is  the  object  aimed  at ;  in  both  the  water  is  useful 
as  a  carrier  of  temperature  and  of  various  elements  of 
plant  food  ;  in  both  the  benefit  is  derived  to  some  extent 
from  the  increased  activity  induced  in  those  chemical 
processes  within  the  soil  by  which  i3lant  food  is  derived 
from  the  comparatively  inert  condition  in  which  it  nat- 
urally lies.  In  both  processes  it  is  the  stagnation  of 
water  upon  or  in  the  soil  which  is  the  evil  to  be  removed; 
and  there  is  rarely  any  good  derived  from  irrigation  un- 
less it  be  accompanied  by  land  drainage.  Of  course  the 
conditions  under  which  the  process  is  conducted  are  very 
different  in  different  climates,  and  in  our  temperate 
climate  we  can  hardly  realize  the  advantage  of  irrigation. 
In  many  tropical  countries  rain  falls  so  seldom,  and  at 
such  lengthened  intervals,  that  field  irrigation  affords 
the  only  possible  chance  for  the  former  to  grow  profitable 
crops.  In  our  own  country  it  is  not  as  the  necessary  pro- 
vision in  the  absence  of  w^hicli  the  land  would  be  barren, 
but  it  is  only  as  increasing  the  activity  of  the  fertilizing 
agencies  already  present  that  irrigation  acts. 

Soils  suited  to  Irrig^ation, — Light  porous  soils,  and 
particularly  gravels  and  sands,  are  most  improved  by 
irrigation.  Tenaceous  and  clay  soils  are  seldom  benefited 
by  it ;  never,  except  in  connection  with  thorough  draining. 
In  all  cases,  indeed,  the  drainage  of  the  land  must  pre- 
cede its  irrigation.  The  soil  to  be  irrigated  must  be 
in  a  condition  enabling  it  to  drain  itself  dry  ;  otherwise 
irrigation,  so  far  from  proving  a  benefit,  may  be  produc- 
tive of  the  worst  results.  It  is  not  only  important  that 
water  be  brought  into  the  ground  ;  it  is  equally  imjiortant 
that  it  should  ]\ass  off  immediately  after  accomplishing 
the  object  sought. 


IMPROYEMEKT   OF   SOILS.  37 

All  waters  are  suitable  for  irrigation  except  those  con- 
taining mineral  substances  deleterious  to  vegetable  life — 
such  as  the  drainage  from  peat  swamps  and  mineral 
springs,  etc.  Water  from  a  running  stream  or  river  is 
generally  superior  to  that  from  wells  or  springs  ;  the 
former  not  only  containing  many  salts  which  it  has  dis- 
solved out  of  the  soil  or  rocks  as  it  j^assed  over  them,  but 
being  also  more  richly  freighted  with  bodies  extracted 
partly  from  the  air,  such  as  oxygen  and  ammonia.  Of 
spring  and  river  waters,  those  denominated  *'hard"  are 
the  best,  and  owe  this  quality  to  the  presence  of  sulphate 
and  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia. 

Effects  of  Irrigation. — The  first  effect  of  water,  when 
made  to  flow  over  the  soil,  is  to  soften  it  and  render 
it  more  permeable  to  the  roots  of  plants,  and  to  the 
air.  Water  acts  still  further  in  dissolving  out  the  food, 
and  producing  those  chemical  changes  which  must  take 
place  in  the  manures  before  they  are  fitted  for  nourish- 
ment. And  owing  both  to  this  and  to  its  conveyance  of 
fertile  matters  from  a  distance  which  are  deposited  on 
the  fields  overflown,  the  mcrease  from  irrigation  is  some- 
times four-fold,  when  the  soil,  the  season,  and  the  water 
are  all  favorable ;  and  it  is  seldom  less  than  doubled. 
The  quality  of  grass  from  irrigated  meadows  is  but 
slightly  inferior  to  that  grown  upon  dry  soils  ;  and  for 
pasturage  it  is  found  that  animals  do  better  in  dry  seasons 
upon  the  former,  and  in  wet  upon  the  latter. 

Modes  of  Irrigating,— These  must  depend  on  the  con- 
^  figuration  of  the  surface,  and  the  supply  of  water.  Some- 
times reservoirs  are  made  for  accumulating  water  from 
rain  and  inundations  ;  but  the  usual  source  of  supply  is 
from  streams  or  rivulets,  or  copious  springs  which  dis- 
charge their  water  at  a*level  above  the  ground  to  be  irri- 
gated.    The  former  are  dammed  up,  to  turn  the  water 


38  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

aside  into  ditches  or  aqueducts,  tlirongh  wliicli  it  is  con- 
ducted to  the  fields,  where  it  is  divided  into  smaller  rills, 
and  finally  spread  over  the  surface,  sinking  into  and 
through  the  soil.  When  it  is  desirable  to  bring  more 
water  upon  meadows  than  is  required  for  saturating  the 
ground,  and  its  escape  to  fields  below  is  to  be  avoided, 
other  ditches  should  be  made  at  intervals  upon  the  slope, 
to  arrest  and  carry  aAvay  the  surface  water. 

Ridge-and-Furrow  or  Bed-Work  System. — Where  the 
land  is  nearly  level  throughout  its  surface,  it  is  laid  out  in 
a  series  of  ridges.  Along  the  top  of  these  the  irrigating 
channels  are  led,  from  which  the  water  flows  over  either 
side,  being  taken  up  by  the  furrows,  which  occupy  the 
hollows  between  the  ridges.  Erom  the  main  conductor, 
and  at  right  angles  to  it,  the  various  feeders  are  taken  off. 
These  consist  of  smaller  trenches  four  or  five  inches  in 
depth,  made  widest,  say  twelve  or  sixteen  inches  where 
they  issue  from  the  main  conductor,  and  gradually  lessen- 
ing as  they  recede  from  it.  They  may  be  formed  at  dis- 
tances of  ten  yards  or  less;  being  made  nearer  on  stiff  soils, 
and  further  apart  where  the  soil  is  loose  and  porous.  They 
occupy  the  ridge  lines  of  the  lands  in  which  the  field  is 
laid,  and  the  furrows  in  the  hollows  between  these  lands 
communicate  with  a  main  surface  drain,  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  meadow.  The  drain  conveys  the  water  back 
to  the  river  from  which  it  was  taken  ;  or  becomes  in  its 
turn  the  main  conductor  to  another  meadow  on  a  lower 
level ;  and  in  this  way  several  meadows  may  be  irrigated 
by  means  of  the  same  water.  This  is  known  as  the  Bed- 
Work  or  Ridge-and-Furrow  system.  It  is  only  suitable 
to  grass  lands,  and  to  land  which  has  nearly  a  level 
surface. 

The  Tatch-Work  System. — On  a  sloping  surface  a  dif- 
ferent plan  must  be  adoj^ted  for  the  conveyance  and  dis- 


IMPROYEMEi^T  OF   SOILS.  39 

tribution  of  the  water.  The  feeders  are  not  carried  lon- 
gitudinally down  the  meadow,  but  across  the  line  of  de- 
scent. They  are  filled  as  before  from  a  main  conductor  ; 
but  the  water  having  overflowed  the  lower  side  of  each, 
is  not  discharged  into  smaller  drains,  as  in  the  former 
case,  but  into  the  next  feeder  lower  down ;  the  purpose 
of  the  catch-furrow  being  to  cut  off  the  rills  into  which 
a  surface  liow  is  apt  to  collect,  and  re-start  the  overflow 
evenly  once  more.  The  water  is  thus  conveyed  from 
feeder  to  feeder  until  it  reaches  the  main  drain,  at 
the  lower  part  of  the  field.  This  is  termed  the  Catch- 
"Work  system,  and  as  it  can  be  adopted  where  the  surface 
is  too  much  inclined  to  admit  of  bed-work,  it  is  fre- 
quently practicable  where  the  other  is  not,  and  is  often 
combmed  with  it  in  the  same  meadow  where  there  are 
inequalities  of  surface.  On  arable  hind  the  catch-work 
system  is  best,  as  the  bed-work  w^ould  be  continually  de- 
stroyed. It  is  also  less  expensive  to  begin  with  than  lay- 
ing the  land  out  in  beds  on  the  ridge-and-furrow  system. 

Time  for  applyinif  Water  to  Meadows. — Where  the 
winters  are  not  severe,  water  may  be  kept  many  days  at 
a  time  on  the  fields  during  the  entire  season  of  frosts. 
This  protects  the  grasses,  which,  on  the  approach  of  warm 
weather,  at  once  start  into  growth  and  yield  an  early  and 
abundant  crojD.  But  in  general  this  system  cannot  be 
successfully  practised.  The  water  may  be  admitted,  at 
proper  intervals,  freely  during  the  spring  and  early  part  of 
the  summer,  when  vegetation  is  either  just  coming,  or  is 
going  forward  rapidly.  It  is  sufficient  to  flood  the  sur- 
face thoroughly,  and  then  shut  off  the  water  for  a  time. 
The  water  should  be  taken  off  before  the  grasses  com- 
mence ripening  :  indeed,  the  common  use  of  the  water 
meadow  in  localities  where  the  soil  abounds  in  lime  where 
they  are  most  useful,  is  in  providing  the  earliest  succu- 
lent food  for  ewes  and  lambs,  which  are  folded  on  them 


40  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

long  before  the  grass  throws  up  a  flower  stem.  When 
kept  for  hay,  immediately  after  the  grass  is  cut,  the 
water  may  be  let  in  as  occasion  requires,  during  the 
drouth  of  summer  ;  and  pastures  may  be  irrigated  from 
time  to  time  as  the  weather  may  demand,  throughout  the 
entire  season. 

Qmantity  of  Water  Required  for  Irrigation.— As  to 

the  quantity  of  water,  it  necessarily  varies  with  the 
nature  and  condition  of  the  soil,  with  the  character  of 
the  subsoil,  with  the  inclination  of  the  surface,  and  with 
the  crops  cultivated.  In  Italy,  it  is  generally  held  that 
the  continued  discharge  of  one  cubic  foot  per  second 
during  twenty-four  hours,  is  sufficient  for  the  irrigation 
of  four  acres  of  meadow  land.  Hence,  as  the  total  volume 
discharged  in  that  time  amounts  to  eighty-six  thousand 
four  hundred  cubic  feet,  and  the  area  watered  to  one 
hundred  and  seventy-four  thousand  two  hundred  and 
forty  square  feet,  it  appears  that  a  stratum  of  water  equal 
to  nearly  six  inches  in  depth  is  in  this,  case  spread  over 
the  surface  of  the  meadow.  Twelve  waterings  are  given 
during  the  season,  at  intervals  of  fourteen  days.  The 
above  calculations  assume,  however,  that  the  w^hole  water 
is  absorbed  by  the  soil,  which  is  never  the  case.  The 
absorption  in  each  watering  in  that  case  probably  ranges 
from  half  to  one-third  of  the  total  quantity  of  water 
em.ployed. 

In  English  water-meadows  the  amount  of  water  poured 
over  the  land  far  exceeds  this  amount ;  and  the  best  effect, 
when  the  water  itself  brings  not  only  warmth  but  food, 
is  obtained  where  there  is  a  continually  moving  thin  layer 
of  water  over  the  wdiole  surface  in  addition  to  the  quan- 
tity which  passes  through  the  substance  of  the  land  to 
the  drains  in  the  subsoil. 

SewasfC  Irrigation,  by  Avhich  the  greatest  luxuriance 


IMPROVEMEIsrT   OF   SOILS.  41 

of  growth  known  to  English  agriculture  is  obtained,  is 
conducted  generally  on  the  ''Bed-work"  system.  The 
most  rapidly  growing  succulent  crops,  and  Italian  Rye- 
gi'ass  is  the  best  of  them  all,  are  employed,  and  the  water 
IS  poured  on  probably  at  the  rate  of  four  hundred  tons 
per  acre,  equal  to  a  thickness  of  four  inches  of  water, 
during  a  few  hours  twice  in  the  growth  of  a  single  crop 
or  cutting.  The  land  being  drained  passes  the  whole  of 
this  rich  and  fertilizing  flood  among  the  fibrous  roots 
of  the  plants  by  which  its  substance  is  permeated.  And 
a  cutting  of  ten  to  fifteen  tons  weight  per  acre  of  the 
grass  is  obtained  as  the  result  of  not  more  than  a  month 
or  five  weeks'  growth.  The  land  is  soaked  twice  or  thrice 
at  intervals  of  a  fortnight  after  each  cutting ;  and  four 
or  five  cuttings  of  grass  are  thus  obtained  from  the  ap- 
pliction  of  four  or  five  thousand  tons  of  the  filthy  water 
in  the  course  of  the  year.  Here,  as  well  as  in  ordinary 
irrigation  accompanied  by  land  drainage,  the  result  is 
due  to  an  added  temperature,  and  an  addition  of  plant 
food,  both  of  which  the  soil  experiences,  and  especially 
to  the  constant  motion  and  passage  of  this  food  beside 
and  among  the  hungry  roots  of  the  ]olants  which  feed 
upon  it. 


42  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 


CHAPTER  V. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  SOILS.— MIXING,  CLAYING,  LIMING, 
CHALKING,  MARLING,  BURNING. 

Mixing  Soils  :  Clay,  Sand,  and  Lime.— Claying  :  Process,  Cost.— 
Liming:  Marling,  Challiing. — Burning:  Paring  and  Burning, 
Stifle  burning,  Clay  burning. 

Mixing  Soils. — Soils  which  possess  conspicuous  de- 
fects 111  their  physical  and  even  in  their  chemical  proper- 
ties may  in  many  cases  be  rendered  fertile  and  productive 
by  a  proper  admixture.  Loams,  indeed,  which  are  per- 
haps the  most  productive  kind  of  soils,  are  naturally  j^ro- 
duced  in  this  way,  being  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay. 
The  nearer,  therefore,  we  can  bring  a  soil  of  a  different 
nature  in  approach  to  this  character,  the  greater  j^robably 
will  be  its  improvement. 

When  a  soil  is  too  clayey,  it  will  be  improved  by  an 
application  of  sand  or  sandy  loam;  calcareous,  sandy,  and 
peaty  soils  are  equally  benefited  by  the  addition  of  clay; 
while  calcareous  earth  may  be  added  to  clays,  sands,  and 
peats  with  the  certainty  of  ultimate  and  permanent  bene- 
fit. There  are  thus  at  least  four  varieties  of  soil  which 
may  be  profitably  improved  by  admixture,  if  circum- 
stances are  favorable.  There  is  this,  however,  to  remark 
as  limiting  our  ability  in  this  respect — that  it  is  only 
those  earths  whose  presence  in  comparatively  small  pro- 
portion is  sufficient  that  we  can  usefully  apply.  If  land 
be  too  stiff,  it  would  probably  need  its  sandy  part  to  bo 
doubled  in  order  to  make  the  land  as  friable  and  loose  in 
texture  as  is  desired;  and  there  might  thus  have  to  be  an 
addition  of  five-hundred  tons  of  sandy  loam  per  acre — a 
labor  whose  cost  is  absolutely  prohibitive.  To  double 
the  percentage  of  alumina  in  a  very  sandy  soil,  and  thus 


IMPROYEMEKT   OF  SOILS.  43 

strengthen  its  texture  and  improve  it  for  every  kind  of 
crop,  need  not  involve  the  addition  of  more  than  fifty  to 
one-hundred  cubic  yards  of  marl  or  clay — an  operation 
which  is  quite  within  ordinary  farm  practice.  In  this 
connection  also  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  nature, 
not  only  of  the  soil,  but  of  the  subsoil,  the  latter  often 
affording  the  readiest  means  of  improving  the  former. 
Where  a  vegetable  or  a  sandy  soil,  for  example,  rests  im- 
mediately upon  a  substratum  of  clay  which  is  near  the 
surface,  the  clay  is  often  dug  up  and  the  surface  top- 
dressed  with  it.  Oontrarywise,  where  the  clay  is  upper- 
most some  good  may  sometimes  be  done  by  deepening 
it  and  mixing  it  with  the  sandy  layer  below.  Where  the 
soil  and  subsoil  are  similar  in  character  and  cannot  be 
used  in  that  way,  it  may  still  happen  that  two  soils  of 
opposite  properties  occur  sufficiently  near  to  one  another 
to  be  used  for  mutual  improvement. 

There  are  situations,  however,  where  neither  of  these 
advantages  will  be  found  to  offer;  the  field,  the  farm,  or 
even  the  entire  district  maybe  uniformly  sandy  or  clayey; 
and  other  alternatives  than  mixing  must  then  be  resorted 
to.  The  light  soils  will  probably  be  consolidated  by 
sheep-foldmg,  and  by  heavy  rollmg;  while  the  strong 
lands  will  be  rendered  more  workable  by  having  green 
crops  plowed  under  and  by  being  heavily  dressed  with 
caustic  lime  in  addition  to  ordinary  manurings. 

The  benefits  of  an  admixture  of  soils  are  obviously  two- 
fold, the  mechanical  texture  as  well  as  the  chemical  com- 
position of  soils  being  altered  and  improved.  A  poor 
sand,  for  instance,  after  an  addition  of  clay  or  marl,  is 
rendered  richer  as  well  as  stronger  and  more  substantial, 
so  that  plants  thrive  better  in  it,  and  a  less  quantity  of 
manure  will  suffice  to  afford  a  full  crop. 

Claying,  as  we  have  seen,  may  be  usefully  followed  as 
a  practice  to  be  adopted  and  repeated  on  sandy,  peaty,  and 


44  THE   SOIL  OF  THE   FARM. 

calcareous  soils.  The  quantity  necessary  will  depend  on 
the  quality  of  the  clay  used,  and  on  the  character  of  the 
soil  to  be  improved.  It  will  also,  to  some  extent,  be 
regulated  by  the  facilities  for  obtaining  it,  and  by  the 
distance  from  which  it  is  to  be  brought.  If  the  clay  has 
to  be  carted  from  beyond  the  field,  the  operation  will 
be  found  laborious  and  expensive.  It  takes  one-hundred 
and  thirty-four  cubic  yards  to  cover  an  acre  an  inch  deep; 
but  this  is  a  very  heavy  dose  when  we  consider  that  the 
ordinary  depth  of  cultivation  does  not  exceed  six  or  eight 
inches.  The  usual  application  varies  from  fifty  to  one- 
hundred  cartloads  per  acre. 

The  clay  is  spread  upon  the  field  before  winter,  so  that 
the  frost  may  break  it  down  and  render  it  fit  to  be  in- 
timately mixed  with  the  soil  before  working  the  land  in 
the  spring.  There  are  various  methods  of  conducting 
the  operation.  If  the  subsoil  of  the  field  supplies  the 
material,  it  is  usual  to  open  a  number  of  deep  furrows,  at 
twelve  or  twenty  yards  apart;  and  as  the  clay  is  dug  out 
it  is  spread  equally  over  the  surface  within  range,  so  as  to 
cover  the  whole  interval.  When  the  distance  is  greater, 
the  plank  and  wheelbarrow  will  afford  the  readiest  and 
most  economical  means  of  working  u]^  to  the  point  where 
carts  would  have  to  be  employed.  In  extensive  operations 
of  this  nature,  especially  where  the  material  to  be  api)lied 
is  situated  at  the  end  of  the  field  to  be  operated  on,  or 
beyond  it,  the  work  may  be  done  by  means  of  small 
trucks  and  a  portable  railway  readily  laid. 

The  cost  of  the  process  necessarily  varies  with  the 
nature  of  the  material,  the  quantity  applied,  and  the  dis- 
tance to  be  carted,  etc.  A  dressing  of  clay  will  cost  more 
per  cubic  yard  than  a  dressing  of  sand,  when  the  latter  is 
a  desirable  a])])lication,  from  the  difficulty  with  which  in 
the  former  case  the  manual  jiortion  of  the  labor  is  per- 
formed. 


IMPROYEMEKT   OF   SOILS.  45 

Liming  is  useful  laot  only  as  adding  a  necessary  element 
to  soils  deficient  in  it,  not  only  as  constituting  a  mellow- 
ing and  ameliorating  agency  in  respect  of  the  texture  of 
the  soil,  but  also  as  supplying  an  imj^ortant  agency  in 
yegetable  soils,  and  especially  in  clay  soils,  in  the  general 
chemistry  ©f  the  land  on  which  the  provision  of  plant 
food  depends.  In  marling  especially,  as  well  as  in  liming 
proper,  it  is  the  calcareous  element  which  is  the  most  ac- 
tive of  the  elements  supplied.  In  the  latter,  of  course,  it 
is  the  clay  which  gives  the  marl  its  characteristic  texture, 
and  renders  it  adapted  especially  for  the  lighter  and  more 
Yegetable  kind  of  soils.  The  claying,  which  has  added 
so  much  to  the  fertility  of  the  Fens  of  Cambridgeshire 
and  Lincolnshire  across  the  water  in  England,  owes  its 
fertilizing  influence,  to  a  considerable  extent,  to  the  lime 
which  it  contains. 

Chalking", — This  is  a  common  practice  on  the  edge  of 
chalk  districts  on  clav  soils,  and  wherever  lime  is  deficient 
in  the  soil,  is«found  beneficial,  both  as  improving  the  tex- 
ture and  as  adding  plant  food  directly  to  the  land.  Some 
of  its  fertilizing  influence  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  small 
quantity  of  phosphoric  acid  which  it  sometimes  con- 
tains ;  and  its  influence  on  the  soil  and  its  contents  is  of 
the  same  kind  as  that  of  caustic  lime,  though  less  ener- 
getic. 

The  chalk  is  carried  on  to  the  field  perhaps  eighty  to 
hundred  cubic  yards  per  acre,  set  down  from  the  carts  in 
little  heaps  four  or  five  yards  apart,  thereafter  spread  and 
left  to  the  influences  of  a  winter  frost,  which  disintegrates 
the  mass  and  enables  its  moie  perfect  mixture  with  the 
soil. 

Parins^  and  Burning. — This  was  at  one  time  a  common 
method  of  breaking  up  old  sward  in  some  countries  of  the 
old  world,  but,  except  m  a  few  districts,  the  practice  has 


46  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FAEM. 

fallen  into  disuse.  There  is,  liowevcr,  no  quicker  or 
better  way  of  bringing  an  old  turf  into  tilth.  It  saves 
time,  and  ahvays  ensures  a  crop,  and  a  good  one.  This 
is  easily  accounted  for.  It  liberates  plant  food  from  the 
minerals  of  the  soil ;  it  purifies,  sweetens,  and  cleanses 
the  soil,  breaking  up  and  driving  out  injunious  acids, 
destroying  grubs  and  parasites  cf  various  kinds  which 
prey  upon  both  crops  and  cattle,  and  killing  the  seeds 
and  roots  of  weeds  ;  and  it  improves  the  mechanical  tex- 
ture of  clay  soils.  The  loss  of  nitrogen  which  occurs 
through  burning,  will  be  amply  made  wp  by  subsequent 
liberal  management  in  all  cases  where  the  mechanical 
texture  of  the  soil  does  not  suffer ;  and  injury  would  ul- 
timately result  only  in  the  case  of  a  few  sandy  soils. 

The  surface  of  the  land  is  taken  off  to  a  depth  of  two 
or  three  inches  by  the  j)aring  plow,  or  with  the  breast-plow 
— a  paring  tool  on  a  long  shaft  with  broad  horizontal 
T-handles  shoved  horizontally  by  thrusts  from  the  thighs, 
which  are  protected  by  wooden  shields  strapped  to  them. 
When  the  weather  is  dry,  the  turf  will  be  ready  to  burn 
in  a  fortnidit.  A  little  straw  or  wood  is  taken  to  becrin 
with.  Then  drier  bits  of  turf  are  put  on  tlie  fire.  As 
the  heap  burns,  more  turf  is  carefully  put  round  against 
the  openings  whence  the  smoke  issues.  This  goes  on,  the 
heap  continually  growing  in  size,  and  the  burning  going 
on  inside,  though  there  never  appears  any  blaze.  After 
the  first  fires  are  well  lighted,  they  serve  to  light  all  the 
other  heaps,  and  no  more  straw  is  wanted.  AVlien  all  the 
heaps  are  lighted,  the  workman  goes  from  heap  to  heap 
adding  turf  until  the  whole  is  burnt  or  charred. 

A  good  deal  has  lately  been  taught  us  about  the  con- 
servative influence  of  the  living  plant,  whether  crop  or 
weed,  on  the  fertilizing  contents  of  the  soil.  Nevertheless, 
as  a  bit  of  good  practical  farming,  we  venture  to  recom- 
mend the  practice  of  ])ai"ing  and  burning  stubbles  in  the 
autumn.     If  set  about  as  soon  as  the  corn  is  cleared  off 


IMPROVEMEi^T   OP   SOILS.  4? 

the  fields,  no  em2:)loyment  of  men  and  horses  at  that  time 
will  pay  better.  The  land  gets  an  effectnal  cleaning, 
snch  as  will  be  a  check  on  Aveeds  throughont  the  entire 
rotation.  Plant  food  is  at  the  same  time  set  free.  The 
soil  is,  moreover,  brought  at  onco  to  a  fine  tilth  ;  and,  if 
soYv^n  immediately,  the  land  may  be  covered  with  a  vigor- 
ous growing  and  useful  catch-crop  in  less  time  than  would 
have  sufficed  to  clean  it  without  burning.  The  crop  is 
usually  consumed  on  the  land ;  but,  if  organic  matter  is 
required  m  the  soil,  it  may  be  plowed  in  as  green  ma- 
nure. In  either  case  the  land  will  be  covered  during 
winter,  and  loss  by  drainage  jn-e vented  ;  it  will  be  direct- 
ly enriched  by  sheep-foldmg  or  green-manuring,  and  it 
will  be  in  the  most  favorable  condition,  both  as  regards 
cleanness  and  tilth,  in  the  sjiring. 

The  work  is  commenced  by  broad-sharing  the  stubbles 
twice  over  in  opposite  directions,  to  a  depth  of  about  three 
inches.  This  is  harrowed.  Then,  when  all  is  dry,  horse 
and  hand  rakes  bring  the  loose  soil  and  weeds  into  heaps 
for  burning.  Straw  is  only  used,  when  necessary,  to 
start  the  first  fires  with.  When  the  heaps  are  half  burned 
through,  the  clods  are  raked  up  towards  the  fire,  and 
fresh  earth  put  on  the  top.  This  is  repeated  the  last 
thing  at  night.  Next  morning,  if  all  has  been  properly 
managed,  the  bulk  of  the  heaps  will  be  sufficiently  burned 
to  have  killed  all  vegetable  and  animal  life  that  was  con- 
tained in  them.  After  this,  the  fire  requires  a  little 
trimming  and  tucking  up  to  complete  the  work.  The 
heaps  may  be  made  to  contain  as  much  as  forty  bushels 
each  ;  and  forty  such  heaps  per  acre,  when  spread  and 
plowed  in,  often  have  an  effect  on  the  subsequent  crop 
equal  to  a  dressing  of  dung  or  guano.  The  burning, 
especially  on  calcareous  clays,  shows  its  good  effects  for 
several  years,  and  the  land  is  tilled  at  less  cost  by  reason 
of  its  working  more  easily. 


48  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FAEM. 

Clay- Burning. — Stiff  clays  are  often  surface-burned,  in 
the  manner  described  above,  with  the  object  of  amchorat- 
ing  their  texture  and  rendering  them  more  workable. 
The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  greatly  increased  at  the  same 
time,  especially  in  the  case  of  calcareous  clajs. 

Cobbett  recommends  not  to  burn  the  land  which  is  to 
be  cultivated,  but  other  earth  for  the  pur2')0se  of  getting 
ashes  to  be  brought  on  the  land ;  and  he  advocates  burn- 
ing within  v/alls  of  turf  or  earth,  instead  of  in  heaps 
above-ground.  As  he  points  out,  the  princijilc  of  clay- 
burniug  is  slow  combustion,  and  this  you  are  sure  to  ef- 
fect if  you  can  check  it  by  addition  to  the  heap.  "When 
the  heap  is  fairly  alight,  put  on  more  clay  wherever  the 
smoke  appears,  but  not  too  much  at  a  time.  This  is  con- 
tinued until  the  heap  is  large  enough,  when  the  fire  is 
allowed  to  extinguish  itself. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


SUB-SOILING,     TRENCH     PLOWING,     TILLAGE     OPER- 
ATIONS. 

SuBSOiT.  Plowing  :  Deepenins:  and  Stirring;.— Trench  Plowing. — Til- 
lage OrEUATiuNs:  Plowiuj^,  Cultivating,  Rolling,  Steam-plowing. 
—Depth  of  Tillage.— Stubble  Cleaning. 

These  operations  tend  to  loosen  the  hard  earth  below 
the  reach  of  the  ordinary  plow,  and  to  facilitate  the 
escape  of  water  from  the  surface ;  they  promote  the  cir- 
culation of  air,  and  afford  a  more  extended  range  for  the 
roots  of  tlie  plants,  by  wliich  they  obtain  additional 
nourishmenc ;  and  tliey  secure  the  crops  against  droutli, 
by  ciial)ling  them  to  penetrate  into  the  region  of  perpetual 
moisture. 


suB-soiLixG,  tre:nch  plowing,  tillage.        49 

Subsoil  Plowifl*?. — The  ultimate  object  of  this  oper- 
ation IS,  of  course,  the  deepening  of  the  soil  and  loosen- 
ing the  subsoil.  This  invariably  follows  from  opening 
the  subsoil  to  the  ameliorating  influence  of  the  elements; 
and  the  beneficial  result  is  due  to  the  accumulation  of 
vegetable  matter  below  the  ordinary  range  of  the  soil  by 
the  roots  penetrating  deeper  and  being  left  to  decay  in 
the  bed  where  they  have  grown.  The  subsoil  plow 
merely  stirs  and  opens  the  subsoil  :  it  does  not  turn  a 
furrow.  A  common  plow  goes  before,  throwing  out  a 
large  open  furrow-slice  of  the  active  soil;  the  subsoil 
plow  follows,  entering  to  a  depth  of  six  or  eight  inches 
below  the  bottom  of  the  surface  furrow ;  and  the  next 
furrow  of  active  soil  is  thrown  over  the  last  opened  fur- 
row of  the  sub-soiler. 

The  subsoil  implement  requires  to  be  drawn  by  four 
or  more  horses,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and 
the  depth  of  working. 

Though  of  great  benefit  on  land  which  is  sufficiently 
dry,  subsoilmg  does  more  harm  than  good  on  wet  lands. 
It  is,  therefore,  only  to  be  employed  as  an  auxiliary  to 
draining,  and  not  as  a  substitute  for  it.  Some  time  must 
elapse,  however,  between  draining  and  subsoiling.  When 
properly  done  it  increases  nearly  every  good  effect  of 
underdraining.  Especially  does  it  diminish  injury  by 
drouth,  by  loosening  the  soil  and  admitting  air  to  cir- 
culate among  the  particles  of  the  subsoil  and  deposit  its 
moisture.  It  deepens  the  soil,  and  renders  available 
matters  v/hich  are  perhaps  deficient  in  the  surface  soil. 
It  also  improves  the  drainage. 

Trench  or  Deep  Plowing. — This  is  advantageous  to 
such  lands  as  are  of  the  same  nature  to  a  considerable 
depth.  For  those  lower  parts  of  the  soil,  which  have 
become  filled  with  manure  which  the  rains  have  carried 
down  below  the  surface,  are  thus  thrown  up,  to  contrib- 
3 


50  THE   SOIL   OF   TKE   FARM. 

ute  to  the  nourishment  of  crops.  Deep  jilowing  is  also 
useful  on  thin  lands  where  the  upper  layer  is  too  clayey 
and  comi^act,  and  rests  upon  a  hed  of  sand  or  limestone. 
By  plownig  deep,  the  sand  or  Hme  is  mixed  with  the  clay 
above,  rendering  it  more  fertile  than  it  could  be  made  by 
any  other  means.  There  are,  however,  cases  m  which, 
from  the  defective  composition  of  the  subsoil,  or  other 
causes,  it  does  more  harm  than  good.  Good  effects  can 
only  be  obtained  from  trench  plowing  when  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  lower  soil  is  such  as  to  supj^ly  m  in- 
creased quantity  the  essential  constituents  of  plant 
growth. 

Where  the  subsoil  is  inferior,  the  deejDening  of  the  soil 
must  be  made  a  gradual  operation,  and  a  very  small 
quantity  of  the  raw  material  brought  to  the  surface  at  a 
time.  The  sub-soiler  effects  this  object  much  better  than 
the  trench  plow,  as  in  the  former  case  the  subsoil  is 
opened  up  and  exposed  to  the  weathering  action  of  the 
atmosphere  without  bringing  it  abruptly  to  the  surface. 

ORDINARY   TILLAGE   OPERATIONS. 

"Whatever  the  physical  or  chemical  properties  of  the 
soil  may  be,  it  will  produce  but  little  if  not  well  tilled. 
And  what  is  true  in  this  respect  of  the  best  soil,  applies 
in  far  stronger  terms  to  the  worst. 

Apart  from  its  immediate  end,  the  provision  of  a 
proper  seed-bed,  the  objects  and  effects  of  tillage  may  be 
enumerated  thus  : — 

(1)  To  stir  and  loosen  the  entire  soil  to  a  sufficient 

depth  :  so  that  the  roots  of  i)lunts  may  freely 
extend  themselves  in  search  of  food. 

(2)  To  pulverize  the  soil  and  mix  thoroughly  its 

constituent  parts,  so  as  to  increase  its  absor- 
bent and  retentive  powers,  and  to  effect  an 
c<|ual  and  economical  distribution  of  manure. 


SUB-SOILIKG,    TRENCH   PLOWIi^G,    TILLAGE.  51 

(3)  To  destroy  weeds  and  foreign  plants,  whicli  rob 
the  crop  of  food  and  check  its  growth. 

Let  us  add  that,  by  opening  the  soil,  and  rendering  it 
permeable  to  air  and  water,  the  inert  materials  contained 
m  it,  both  organic  and  inorganic,  are  convertible  into 
soluble  plant  food.  And  m  regard  to  many  of  the  insects 
which  prey  upon  our  crops,  especially  such  as  work 
beneath  the  soil  at  the  roots  of  plants,  frequent  tillage  is 
found  to  disturb  them  and  bring  them  to  the  surface 
where  they  get  picked  up  by  birds. 

Tillage  operations  include  all  soil  operations  which 
apply  directly  to  the  cultivation  of  farm  crops — plow^ing, 
cultivating,  harrowing,  and  rolling,  or  whatever  else  is 
done  to  bring  land  to  a  proper  state  to  receive  the  seed. 
They  also  include  the  operations  of  hoeing  and  weeding 
the  ground  after  it  is  planted. 

Plowing. — In  plowing  we  break  up  the  ground  into 
furrow  slices,  turning  them  over  in  such  a  manner  that  a 
new  surface  is  presented  to  the  atmosphere.  This  or  some 
other  mode  of  loosening  and  turning  up  the  under  parts 
of  soils  is  necessary  to  fit  them  for  the  reception  of  the 
seed  and  the  growth  of  crops. 

The  object  of  plowing  being  to  expose  the  upturned 
soil  to  the  atmosphere  and  to  create  the  greatest  quantity 
of  mould  the  furrow-slices  can  produce,  it  follows  that 
the  furrow -slice  which  shows  the  greatest  surface  will 
answer  these  ends  most  effectually.  In  the  case  of  a 
square  cut  furrow-slice  this  is  found  to  result  when  it  is 
laid  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees;  and  to  this  end 
its  width  must  be  to  its  depth  as  about  ten  to  seven. 
If  the  furrow-slices  are  ragged,  open,  and  broken,  and 
if,  being  cut  of  vai-ious  depths  and  widths,  they  are  laid 
at  different  heights,  the  work  is  inferior.  A  uniform 
depth  of  tilth  cannot  then  be  provided  by  the  harrow, 
and  the  seed   will  be  unequally  buried. 


52  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

On  lea  ground  the  furrow  is  usually  eight  to  ten  inches 
in  breadth  by  five  to  seven  in  depth.  The  medium  depth 
of  good  plowing  is  six  or  seven  inches.  Shallower 
plowing  is  often  inevitable  on  thin  soils,  while  on  deep 
land  the  stubble  furrow  may  be  ten  inches  or  more  in 
depth. 

The  term  ^^feering"  is  applied  to  the  commencement 
or  opening  of  a  land  or  ridge;  and  the  process  varies 
according  to  the  state  of  the  land  to  be  plowed.  On 
lea  ground,  as  also  on  stubble  land,  there  is  generally  an 
old  furrow  to  go  by,  in  which  case  two  shallow  furrow- 
slices  are  then  turned,  the  one  against  the  other;  and 
along  each  side  of  this  commencement  the  plowing 
moves.  On  turnip  land,  or  where  there  is  no  old  furrow 
to  turn  the  first  furrow-slices  into,  two  furrows  are  thrown 
out,  and  then  turned  lightly  in  as  before.  The  plowing 
goes  on  in  this  direction,  the  horses  always  turning  to 
the  right-about  at  the  end  of  the  furrows  until  half  of 
the  land  or  ridge  is  plowed.  The  plowing  so  far  has 
been  what  is  technically  called  •'  gathering."  At  this 
stage,  however,  a  second  feering  is  commenced,  and  the 
same  order  followed  until  another  half  land  has  been 
gathered.  Thus,  if  the  distance  between  the  two  feerings 
was  ten  yards,  five  yards  would  be  gathered  in  each  case, 
and  five  yards  of  unplowed  land  still  lie  between  them. 
In  order  to  plow  out  this,  the  plowman  now  alters  his 
course,  and  turns  ahvays  to  the  left-about  at  both  ends, 
laying  furrow  after  furrow  towards  the  inside  of  each 
feering,  until  the  two  plowed  lands  meet.  This  is  known 
as  ^^ casting," '' cleaving,"  or '^splitting."  On  all  but 
lea  ground  the  open  furrows  ultimately  left  are  usually 
turned  in  by  running  the  plow  once  or  twice  back  ui)on 
the  last  turned  furrows.  After  this,  the  seed  harrows 
take  out  all  traces  of  the  open  furrows,  and  leave  the 
land  entirely  level. 

I(  is,  in  t^onic  districts,  a  common  practice  to  move  only 


SUB-SOILIIs^G,    TREi^CH    PLOWIKG,    TILLAGE.  53 

one  half  the  land  at  certain  seasons  by  plowing  each 
furrow-slice  on  to  its  own  width  of  unmoved  soil.  This, 
W'hich  IS  called '^  raftering,  "  is  sometimes  done  in  the 
case  of  foul  land  to  enable  the  harrow  to  deal  perfectly 
with  one  half  of  the  soil  at  a  time.  It  is  also  a  common 
practice  to  rib  clay  land  before  winter  by  plowing  two 
furrow-slices  together  over  an  intervening  width  of  about 
twelve  inches — thus  creating  a  ridgelet  thirty  inches 
wide  on  which  the  frost  can  exert  its  disintegrating 
effect. 

The  points  of  merit  in  plowing  are — (1)  a  straight 
furrow  of  uniform  width  and  depth;  (2)  a  clean  cut  slice, 
both  on  its  land  side  and  floor;  (3)  a  well  laid  furrow- 
slice,  having  regard  to  compactness  and  form;  (4)  com- 
plete burial  of  the  grass  or  stubble  turned  in;  (5)  a 
uniformly  plowed  ridge;  (6)  a  finish  showing  an  open 
furrow  with  a  clean  narrow  bottom,  the  last  furi'ow- 
slice  being  equal  in  width  and  height  with  the  others. 

Many  calculations  have  been  made  to  prove  the  waste 
of  time  consequent  upon  short  furi'ows.  Under  average 
circumstances  a  pair  of  horses  will  plow  an  acre  of  grass 
land  in  a  day  of  nine  hours.  On  turnip  land  of  the 
same  quality  rather  more  than  an  acre  will  be  plowed  in 
a  day,  and  on  stubble  land  one  and  one-quarter  acre. 
A  considerable  difference  will,  of  course,  be  found  in 
the  work  accomplished  by  different  horses  and  men,  even 
on  the  same  land.  With  a  furrow  nine  inches  wide,  ex- 
actly eleven  miles  are  travelled  in  plowing  an  acre.  A 
quarter  of  the  day  or  more  is  generally  used  in  turning  at 
the  headland. 

Cnltivatinj?  or  Stirrina:, — The  cultivator  merely  stirs 
the  soil  and  does'  not  turn  it  over  like  the  plow;  but  it 
can  work  to  an  equal  depth.  It  is  especially  useful  in 
a  spring  fallow  after  autumn  plowing,  as  the  winter- 
weathered  tilth  IS  thereby  retained  on  the  surface,  and 


54  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

the  moisture  of  the  soil  is  less  evaporated  than  when  the 
land  is  s^n'ing  plowed — a  point  of  tlie  first  importance  in 
turnip  cultivation.  It  is  also  much  used  in  jDrejDaring 
light  land  just  cleared  of  roots  for  being  sown  with  sj^ring 
grain  and  seeds,  as  it  furnishes  a  fine  mould  and  keeps  the 
manure  near  the  surface.  Fitted  with  broad  points,  and 
worked  at  a  shallower  depth,  the  cultivator  is  the  most 
effective  implement  m  use  for  stubble  cleaning  after  har- 
vest. The  substitution,  when  possible,  of  the  cultivator 
for  the  plow  is  attended  with  a  considerable  saving,  both 
of  time  and  labor. 

Cultivators  are  adajoted  for  either  two  or  four  horses, 
though  the  same  implement  which  can  be  worked  with 
ease  by  two  horses  on  a  light  soil  or  at  a  shallow  depth, 
will  often  require  three  or  four  horses  on  stiff  land,  or 
where  deeper  working  has  to  be  practised.  If  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  work  admits  of  it,  however,  two  horses  in 
a  light  cultivator  will  do  more  than  half  the  work  of  four 
yoked  to  a  larger  implement,  as  they  step  more  freely  and 
with  greater  ease  to  themselves.  On  light  land,  a  two- 
horse  cultivator  should  work  live  acres  of  fallow  to  a 
depth  of  about  six  inches,  and  four  acres  to  a  less  depth 
on  land  where  roots  have  been  fed  off;  on  stiff  land,  or 
working  to  a  greater  depth,  a  three  or  four-horse  cul- 
tivator would  do  about  six  acres  in  a  day. 

Harrowini?  (1)  pulverizes  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  two  or 
three  inches,  and  reduces  to  fineness  the  surface  clods  and 
lumps  that  are  left  after  plowing,  cultivating,  or  digging; 
(2)  it  shakes  out  and  separates  the  weeds  that  are  in  the 
soil;  (3)  it  smooths  surface  inequalities,  by  which  means 
the  seed  is  more  evenly  deiDosited,  and  is  more  likely  to 
have  a  uniform  germination ;  and  (4),  after  the  seed  is 
sown,  the  harrow  buries  it  at  a  moderate  dei)tli  beneatli 
tlie  surface.  AVe  might  add  a  fifth  use ;  for  it  is  in  many 
cases  a  good  practice  to  harrow  the  winter-sown  wheat 


SUB-SOILING,    TRENCH   PLOWING,    TILLAGE.  55 

in  spring,  and  break  up  the   weathered   pan   upon   the 
surface. 

The  usual  direction  of  harrowing  after  seed  is  sown  is 
first  along  the  furrows,  then  across,  and  finally  along 
again.  The  quantity  of  land  harrowed  in  a  day  depends 
in  a  measure  on  the  kind  of  harrowing  as  well  as  on  the 
kind  of  harrow  used,  and  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  A 
two-horse  set  of  ordinary  harrows  covers,  usually,  a  width 
of  seven  and  a-half  feet.  That  is  equal  to  ten  nine-inch 
furrows  with  the  plow  ;  so  that  if  the  teams  trayelled  at 
the  same  pace,  a  pair  of  horses  ought  to  harrow  as  much 
land  in  one  day  as  they  could  plow  in  ten.  But  horses, 
as  a  rule,  travel  a  good  deal  faster,  and  consequently 
farther  when  harrowing  than  when  plowing.  It  follows, 
therefore,  that  if  a  plow,  travelling  at  the  rate  of  eleven 
miles  a  day,  with  a  nine-incli  furrow,  turns  over  exactly 
one  acre  of  land,  a  set  of  harrows,  covering  ten  times  the 
width  of  a  nine-incli  furrow,  and  travelling  one-fourth  to 
one-third  faster  than  the  plow,  must  get  over  twelve  or 
thirteen  acres  a  day  :  that  is,  when  giving  one  turn  of  the 
harrow,  or  a  single  tine,  as  it  is  called.  With  a  double 
turn,  only  half  that  quantity  of  land  would  be  covered  in 
a  day.     These  are  average  quantities  on  average  land. 

Rollin.!^  (1)  breaks  those  clods  or  lumps  which  have 
resisted  the  action  of  the  harrow ;  (2)  it  presses  down 
surface  stones,  etc.,  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the 
scythe  or  reaping  machine  ;  (3)  it  gives  a  greater  degree 
of  compactness  to  soil  which  is  too  light  and  friable, 
making  it  firmer  around  the  roots  of  plants,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  less  favorable  breeding-ground  for  many 
kinds  of  insects ;  while  the  smoother  surface  presents 
fewer  points  of  .evaporation ;  (4)  it  presses  down  and 
makes  firm  the  ground  about  newly-soon  seeds  ;  and  some- 
times (5),  when  very  small  seeds  are  to  be  sown,  it  is  well 
to  roll  the  ground  first,  so  as  to  level  it  thoroughly  and 


56  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

facilitate  a  more  equal  distribution  of  the  seed  than  could 
otherwise  take  i)lace ;  (6)  it  is  used  to  press  into  the 
ground  the  roots  of  those  plants  sown  in  the  preceding 
autumn  w4iich  have  been  detached  by  frost. 

A  spring  rolling  on  a  field  of  winter  grain  will  often, 
by  firming  the  soil  about  its  roots,  save  the  crop  ;  and  it 
is  equally  beneficial  in  a  similar  way  on  grass  lands.  On 
light  soils  the  loosening  effects  of  frequent  freezing  and 
thawing  are  more  or  less  avoided  by  an  autumn  rolling. 
Grass  land  cannot  be  too  heavily  rolled ;  and  on  all  light 
lands  under  tillage  the  use  of  the  roller  is  indispensable 
for  closing  the  pores  and  preventing  the  evaporation  of 
moisture. 

But  while  rolling  is  of  much  benefit  on  light,  porous, 
and  lumpy  soils,  it  is  injurious  on  w^et  clays,  except  in 
dry  weather,  when  they  are  lumpy  after  plowing.  Soil- 
ing a  stiff  soil  when  wet  renders  it  more  difficult  of  cul- 
tivation, by  pressing  the  particles  still  more  closely 
together,  and  preventing  the  admission  of  air.  Even 
light  arable  lands  require  the  ground  to  be  dry  when 
rolled,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  that  otherwise  the  soil 
will  adhere  to  the  roller.  Grass  land,  however,  is  best 
rolled  in  showery  weather. 

Using  the  same  power  in  each  case,  more  land  will  be 
rolled  in  the  same  time  on  grass  than  on  a  wheat  seed-bed; 
and  more  on  a  wheat  seed-bed  than  on  rough  fallow  land. 
A  light  one-horse  roller,  covering  about  six  feet  m  width, 
will  get  over  twelve  to  thirteen  acres  on  grass  land,  ten 
acres  on  a  wheat  seed-bed,  and  eight  or  nine  acres  on  fal- 
low land,  in  a  working  day  of  ten  hours.  A  two-horse 
roller  should  get  over  twelve  to  fifteen  acres  on  grass,  ten 
to  twelve  acres  on  a  wheat  seed-bed,  and  ten  acres  on 
fallow.  A  clod-crusher,  drawn  by  three  horses,  will  ac- 
complish six  to  eight  acres  per  day. 

Hoeing. — This  operation  is  proceeded  with  while  the 


SUB-SOILIJTG,    TREKCH   PLOWING,    TILLAGE.  57 

crop  is  growing,  and  it  fulfills  two  important  objects. 
First,  it  extirpates  weeds  and  keeps  the  land  clean ;  and 
secondly,  it  stirs,  loosens,  and  pulverizes  the  surface  soil. 
The  extirpation  of  weeds  is  of  course  indispensable  to 
good  cultivation.  But  the  second  23rinciple  of  hoeing  is 
if  possible  still  more  important.  Deep  and  continuous 
hoeing  is  wonderfully  eifective  in  promoting  the  growth 
of  plants.  It  prevents  the  soil  reverting  to  its  natural 
solidity,  admits  air  and  water,  and  by  breaking  and  sub- 
dividing it,  causes  it  to  retain  moisture  and  to  j) resent 
innumerable  surfaces  and  fresh  particles  to  the  young 
roots.  The  effect  is  visible  in  the  faster  growth  of  the 
plants  every  time  the  earth  is  stirred  about  them. 

Hoeing,  however,  can  only  be  practised  in  the  case  of 
crops  in  drills  or  in  hills.  Broadcast  work  is  thus  incom- 
patible with  thorough  cultivation,  even  in  the  case  of 
gram  crops.  If  horse-hoeing  is  intended  among  the 
grain  crops,  the  drilling  should  corresi3ond  with  the 
horse-hoe  to  be  used.  Drilling  is  equally  indispensable 
to  all  hand-hoeing. 

Steam  CisUlvatlon. — In  many  cases  tillage  by  the 
wealthy  farmer  may,  m  part  at  least,  be  advantageously 
performed  by  steam  power.  It  (1)  gives  cheaper,  deeper, 
and  more  efficient  tillage  than  horse  power ;  it  (2)  ena- 
bles the  work  to  be  done  with  rapidity  and  at  the  best  sea- 
son ;  it  (3)  enables  land  to  be  more  quickly  and  effectually 
cleaned  and  kept  free  from  weeds  ;  it  (4)  promotes  good 
drainage  by  rendering  tenacious  soils  more  friable  and 
porous  ;  and  it  (5)  not  only  effects  a  considerable  diminu- 
tion in  the  number  of  horses,  but,  by  relieving  tliem  of 
their  heaviest  work,  enables  you  to  keep  those  which  are 
still  necessary  at  less  expense. 

Of  the  two  mam  systems  of  cultivating  by  steam,  the 
double-engine  system  necessarily  involves  the  largest  out- 
lay to  begin  with  ;  but  where  the  farm  is  large  enough  to 


58  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

afford  a  reasonable  amount  of  work  for  the  tackle,  it  will 
cultivate  at  a  less  cost  per  acre  than  the  single  engine  tackle. 

Depth  of  Cultivation. — The  proper  depth  at  which  to 
cultivate  must  depend  chiefly  upon  the  nature  and  con- 
dition of  the  soil,  though  partly  also  upon  the  kind  of  crop 
to  he  grown.  ^Vet  lands  should  not  be  plowed  deep 
until  they  have  been  thoroughly  drained.  Alluvial  soils 
and  deep  clay  loams,  where  the  surface  and  subsoils  do  not 
materially  differ,  can  scarcely  be  tilled  too  deep.  Thin 
soils,  however,  should  not  for  present  profit  be  plowed 
below  the  layer  of  mould;  but  their  ultimate  fertility 
and  capacity  may  be  greatly  increased  by  subsoiling  and 
heavy  manuring  for  a  series  of  years.  It  takes  twice  as 
much  manure  to  fertilize  land  Avhen  it  is  plowed  to  a 
depth  of  ten  inches  as  when  it  is  plowed  five  inches ; 
and  the  converse  is  equally  true — that  by  plowing  only 
five  inches  the  soil  will  be  exhausted  much  quicker  than 
when  the  plowing  is  ten  inclies.  But  whether  it  in- 
volves the  necessity  of  additional  manure  or  not,  a  tillage 
depth  of  six  to  ten  inches  is  vastly  preferable  to  a  less 
depth.  Von  Thaer  estimated  that  each  inch  of  mould 
between  six  and  ten  inches  increased  the  value  of  the  soil 
eight  per  cent. 

The  importance  of  deep  tillage  may  be  inferred  from 
the  great  depth  to  which  the  roots  of  some  plants  will 
penetrate  the  soil,  when  conditions  favor  their  doing  so. 
And  a  deep  soil  is  as  beneficial  for  the  supply  of  moisture 
during  dry  weather,  as  to  give  room  for  the  roots  of  plants 
to  extend  themselves.  Further,  the  deeper  stratum  not 
only  renders  the  soil  less  subject  to  drouth,  but  it  makes 
it  a  better  retainer  of  heat,  and  furnishes  abetter  medium 
for  the  action  of  all  the  agents  engaged  in  promoting  the 
vigorous  growth  of  plants. 

Deep  and  thorough  tillage,  tlierefore,  is  to  be  extolled  as 
a  general  principle.     Still,  while  it  is  useful  to  all  crops, 


SUB-SOILIXG,    TREJ^CH    PLOWIXG,    TILLAGE.  59 

it  is  of  more  direct  imj)ortance  to  some  j^lants  than  to 
others.  Root  and  green  crops  are  the  ones  which  benefit 
most  directly  by  deep  cultivation  of  the  soil.  As  these 
crops  usually  follow  grain  crops,  it  thus  becomes  desirable 
to  give  the  deepest  tillage  on  the  grain  stubbles.  When 
the  land  has  been  plowed  or  cultivated  deej)  in  preparing 
for  the  green  crop,  deep  stirring  for  the  subsequent  crops 
of  the  rotation  may  be  not  only  unnecessary  but  often  in- 
jurious, as  being  unsuited  to  the  habit  of  growth  of  the 
plant  under  cultivation. 

Amount  of  tillage  requisite. — Good  husbandry  gives 
to  every  soil  and  crop  its  proper  tilth.  The  stiffest  and 
poorest  soils  require  the  greatest  amount  of  tillage.  Light 
soils,  however,  are  rarely  over-cultivated.  As  Tull,  in  his 
philosophy  of  tillage,  has  pointed  out,  much  plowing  and 
pulverizing  of  a  naturally  light  soil  will  not  make  it  more 
loose  and  open,  but  have  the  contrary  effect,  making  its 
natural  porousness  less,  and  its  density  greater. 

It  is  possible,  of  course,  to  have  a  soil  too  loose,  for  it 
must  have  a  certain  consistency  to  retain  moisture  and 
support  plants  ;  but  too  great  looseness  is  a  rare  fault,  and 
one  not  without  its  remedy.  By  harrowing  the  land  while 
it  is  still  damp,  and  by  heavy  rolling  as  it  becomes  drier, 
the  necessary  degree  of  firmness  may  always  be  obtained. 

The  soil  is  more  frequently  too  open  ;  but  that  indicates 
either  a  want  of  sufficient  tillage  or  an  injudicious  apj)li- 
cation  of  it.  In  dry  weather  clay  soils  are  brought  to  the 
finest  tilth  with  the  least  labor,  by  harrowing  immediately 
after  plowing  or  cultivating,  and  accompanying  this  op- 
eration, when  necessary,  with  the  use  of  the  roller.  In  a 
similar  season,  lio-ht  and  drv  soils  must  be  sown  and  fin- 
ished  up  as  quickly  as  possible  after  plowing.  In  a  wet 
season,  the  best  tilth  is  obtained  by  harrowing  when  the 
soil  IS  in  the  stage  *'  twixt  wet  and  dry." 

The  mechanical  condition  of  a  good  seed-bed  should  be 


60  THE    SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

regulatecl  more  by  the  kind  of  crop  to  be  grown  than  by 
the  character  of  the  soil.  AVe  know  the  importance  of  a 
solid  bottom  and  a  fine  surface  for  barley.  Nor  will 
wheat  and  oats  grow  in  a  yery  loose  subsoil,  though  a 
fine  top  is  of  less  consequence,  to  wheat  at  least.  Root 
crops,  on  the  other  hand,  require  a  seed-bed  which  is 
neither  firm  nor  loose,  but  fine  and  deep.  Grasses  and 
clovers  flourish  best  on  a  firm  hard  soil  with  a  fine 
surface. 

Stubble  cleanini?  and  autumn  cultivation,— The  two 

great  objects  of  tillage,  pulverization  of  the  soil  and 
destruction  of  weeds,  are  greatly  facilitated  by  stubble 
cleaning  and  autumn  cultivation. 

As  the  weeds  are  in  their  weakest  condition  just  after 
the  grain  is  harvested,  that  is  the  time  to  attack  them. 
The  most  effectual  plan  of  doing  so  is  to  cultivate  the 
stubbles.  Previous  to  this,  however,  deep-rooted  weeds, 
like  the  dock,  should  be  pulled  ;  and  couch-grass,  where 
it  occurs  in  patches,  should  be  forked  out  by  hand. 
Then  the  broad-share  cultivator  may  be  run  over  the 
field,  taking  care  not  to  cut  the  roots  of  the  remaining 
weeds,  but  to  cut  under  them,  and  so  to  loosen  the  soil, 
and  the  hold  of  the  weeds  upon  it,  that  they  can  be 
shaken  out  by  the  harrows  and  gathered  into  heaps.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  burn  the  weeds  if  there  is  any  objec- 
tion to  that  plan.  They  miglit  be  left  on  the  ground,  if 
dead,  to  decompose;  but  as  that  will  interfere  with  the 
work  which  has  to  go  on,  a  compost  may  be  formed  of 
the  weeds  with  quick-lime,  road-scrapings,  etc.  The 
quick-lime,  if  used  in  the  proportion  of  one-eighth,  will 
speedily  decompose  the  weeds,  and  the  compost  will  be 
ready  to  apply  to  the  land  in  the  spring. 

Pulverization  of  tlie  surface  soil  will  bo  broue^ht  about 
by  these  operations,  but  clay  soils,  generally,  will  be 
further  benefited  by  deep  plowing  and  exposure  to  win- 


SUB-SOILII^G,    TRENCH  PLOWIJTG,    TILLAGE.  61 

ter  weather  and  frosts.  The  autumn  tillage,  however, 
as  well  as  that  at  other  seasons,  should  conform  with  the 
requirements  of  the  cropping  which  is  to  follow. 

Keeping  the  soil  covered, — Land  is  not  cleaned  and 
tilled  with  the  object  of  being  left  bare.  Let,  therefore, 
the  stubble  cleaning  and  autnmn  tillage  be  done  early 
enough  to  admit  of  a  catch-crop,  if  not  a  regular  winter 
crop  being  sown.  The  Eothamsted  experiments  have 
clearly  demonstrated  the  desirableness  of  this  course. 
When  there  is  no  vegetation,  or  even  when  there  is  veg- 
etation, during  excessive  drainage,  nitric  acid  is  lost  in 
large  quantity  through  the  drains.  The  remedy  for  this 
is  to  sow  the  newly-cleaned  stubbles  with  clover,  mustard, 
rape,  winter  rye,  or,  in  mild  climates,  to  plant  cab- 
bages. The  catch-crop  will  pay  well  for  growing,  and 
the  land  will  be  clean  after  its  removal  m  spring.  It  will 
then  require  comparatively  little  labor  to  prepare  the 
soil  for  the  summer  crop  ;  whereas,  when  all  the  clean- 
ing remains  to  be  done  at  that  period,  it  is  so  laborious 
and  difficult  that  it  is  seldom  well  done,  while  the  proper 
season  for  sowing  is  often  lost  through  the  work  not  be- 
ing accomplished  in  time.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that 
keeping  the  soil  covered  is  not  everything  ;  for,  as  Sir 
J.  B.  Lawes  points  out,  the  power  of  vegetation  to  utilize 
the  nitric  acid  in  the  soil  is  much  diminished  if  there  be 
a  deficiency  of  available  mineral  constituents.  This  de- 
ficiency is  to  be  prevented  or  made  good  by  stubble  clean- 
ing, autumn  plowing,  and  exposure  of  the  soil  ;  and  fer- 
tility is  to  be  retained  by  concurrent  good  management 
in  cropping. 

Water-furrowing. — It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in 
the  cultivation  of  stiff  soils,  whether  they  be  under- 
drained  or  not,  that  the  field  be  laid  up  m  lands  or  ridges 
before  winter,  and  that  the  intervening  furrows  be  well 


62  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

cleaned  out.  Where  clay  land  cultivation  is  well  under- 
stood, every  field  is  not  only  plowed  in  narrow  lands  be- 
fore winter,  but  diagonal  furrows  are  so  taken  across  the 
slope  as  to  cut  over  these  ridge  furrows  at  intervals  of 
fifty  or  sixty  yards  ;  and  these  cross  furrows  are  well 
cleaned  out  by  the  spade,  and  so  connected  with  an  out- 
fall to  the  ditch  as  that  it  is  impossible  for  any  rainfall 
to  pond  anywhere  in  the  field. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
HOME  MANURE. 


General  and  Artificial  Manure. — Farm- yard  Manures:  Manaa:ement, 
Application,  Valuation.— Green  Manures.— Sheep  Fold— Com- 
post.— Lime. 

We  include  in  this  chapter  all  the  home  resources  of 
the  farm  in  connection  witli  this  subject  ; — Lime  also,  as 
being  part  of  tlie  system  on  which  the  mainteuance  of 
fertility  often  depends.  The  auxiliary  and  artificial 
manures  now  generally  employed  are  the  subject  of  an- 
other cliapter. 

Manures  supply  the  soil  w^ith  ingredients  required  by 
plants  which  arc  deficient  in  the  land  cither  by  reason  of 
the  exhaustion  conse([uent  on  annual  cro})ping  or  from 
original  poverty  of  composition. 

All  fertile  soils  can  yield  from  their  stores  of  natural 
fertility  a  certain  amount  of  produce  ;  and  rent,  as  Sir 
J.  B.  Lawes  has  recently  pointed  out,  may  be  described 
as  being  paid  for  the  riglit  of  annually  removing  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  the  fertilizing  matter  in  the  soil.  If  the 
crop  of  the  year  be  left  on  the  land,  the  fertility  of  the 


HOME   MANURE.  63 

soil  is  increased,  for  some  of  it  is  derived  from  the  air. 
If  it  is  continually  removed,  however,  the  loss  will  ex- 
ceed the  natural  increment ;  and  the  soil  will  ultimately 
fail,  unless  the  substances  removed  are  restored  from 
some  other  source  in  the  form  of  manure.  The  poorer 
the  soil,  the  more  complete  must  be  the  restoration  of  the 
ingredients  carried  away  in  the  crops,  if  fertility  is  to  be 
maintained  or  mcreased.  But  even  the  best  soils  are 
made  to  yield  larger  crops  with  manure  than  they  can  do 
without  it. 

Practice  and  experiment  in  the  growth  of  crops  have 
shown  that  nitrogen,  phosphates,  potash,  and  lime,  in 
assimilable  form,  are  the  substances  which  most  strik- 
ingly benefit  land  ;  and  chemical  analysis  has  determined 
in  a  measure  the  varying  proportions  in  which  different 
crops  draw  upon  these  and  other  constituents  of  the  soil. 

Acting  on  this  knowledge,  chemists  have  given  speci- 
fications for  the  preparation  of  manures  for  all  the  differ- 
ent crops,  these  schemes  being  professedly  based  on  the 
composition  of  the  crops  themselves.  But  manuring  on 
this  principle  would  often  cost  more  than  the  consequent 
increase  of  the  crop  would  repay  ;  for  it  makes  no  allow- 
ance for  natural  fertilitv,  and  it  makes  no  distinction 
between  the  composition  of  the  crops  grown  and  the 
composition  of  the  produce  sold  off  the  farm.  AVe  know 
that  soils  are  of  very  unequal  fertility,  that  some  have  an 
unlimited  food-supply  compared  with  others,  and  that  it 
is  only  the  materials  sold  off  the  farm  that  the  mainte- 
nance of  fertility  requires  to  be  restored.  More  than  this, 
crops  differ  greatly  in  their  cai:»ability  of  self-su^^pl}-. 
Take,  as  an  example  of  the  latter  characteristic,  the  re- 
lations of  wheat  and  clover  to  nitrogen.  Chemical  an- 
alysis shows  that-  clover  contains  more  nitrogen  than 
wheat ;  and  yet  the  wheat  finds  its  nitrogen  with  diffi- 
culty, while  the  clover  seems  to  have  a  power  of  self- 
supply  in   this   particular.      Thus,    in   defiance   of   the 


G4  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

chemical  composition  of  the  two  crops,  the  farmers 
practice,  when  he  manures  wheat  liberally  with  nitrogen 
and  gives  little  or  none  to  clover,  is  justified.  Economic 
manuring  must  supplement  the  plant's  Aveakness,  while 
it  makes  good  tlie  deficiencies  of  tlie  soil. 

A  general  manure  contains  all  the  constituents  of  the 
crop,  or  at  least  all  those  in  which  soils  are  most  deficient; 
but  it  by  no  means  follows  that  every  substance  which 
may  act  beneficially  as  a  manure  ought  to  be  applied. 
If  a  soil  is  deficient  in  one  particular  element,  and  con- 
tains all  the  other  requisites  of  fertility,  that  one  sub- 
stance may  act  as  beneficially  when  applied  as  though  it 
were  a  manure  containing  all  the  constituents  of  the 
crop.  The  crop  in  this  case  is  thrown  upon  the  natural 
resources  of  the  soil  for  all  its  other  elements.  After  a 
heavy  dressing  of  one  substance,  that  substance  may  not 
be  required  for  several  years,  but  some  other  substance 
may  be  needed  ;  and  this  all  the  more  because  the  larger 
crops  now  grown  will  exhaust  such  other  substances 
more  rapidly  than  the  smaller  crops  did  previously.  By 
persisting  in  the  exclusive  use  of  a  special  manure,  an 
ultimate  exhaustion  of  the  soil  is  inevitable.  Judiciously 
used,  special  manures  are  the  agents  which  bring  into 
useful  activity  the  dormant  resources  of  the  soil ;  they 
restore  the  proper  balance  between  its  different  constitu- 
ents, and  supply  the  excessive  demand  for  some  particular 
elements.  Still,  the  application  useful  on  one  soil  may 
be  quite  useless  on  another,  and  the  application  may  be 
useful  on  a  soil  in  one  season  and  useless  in  another. 

A  general  manure  may  be  used  year  after  year  in  a 
perfectly  routine  manner,  but  where  a  special  manure  is 
emploj^ed,  the  importance  of  watching  its  effects  and 
alterim?  it  as  circumstances  indicate,  cannot  be  over- 
estimated.  This  forces  upon  us  the  necessity  for  study- 
ing the  succession  of  manures  as  Avell  as  that  of  crops. 


HOME   MAKURE.  65 

In  many  cases  in  which  ammonia  when  first  used  proyed 
beneficial,  it  now  begins  to  lose  its  effect,  and  the  reason 
no  doubt  is,  that  by  its  means  the  phosphates  existing  in 
these  soils  have  been  reduced  in  amount,  while  the  am- 
monia has  accumulated,  so  that  change  of  manuring  is 
needed. 

Artificial  Manures. — Farm-yard  manure  is  a  '^ gen- 
eral "  manure ;  whereas  all  artificial  manures  are  more  or 
less  '^special"  manures,  some  of  the  most  successful  of 
them  being  deficient  in  a  great  many  of  the  most  im- 
portant elements  of  plant-growth.  In  addition  to  the 
special  food-supply  yielded  by  them,  they  are,  as  a  rule, 
more  active  and  give  quicker  returns  than  farm-yard 
manure  ;  so  that  however  rich  the  latter  may  be  in  the 
constituents  of  crops,  it  is  impossible,  in  the  present 
condition  of  agriculture,  to  do  without  large  supplies  of 
artificial  manures. 

The  late  Mr.  Pusey  experimented  with  a  view  to  dis- 
coverins:  the  extent  to  which  farm-yard  manure  could  be 
profitably  used.  One  acre  of  land,  without  manure, 
yielded  fifteen  and  a  half  tons  of  mangels  ;  a  second 
acre,  with  thirteen  tons  of  farm-yard  manure,  }delded 
twenty-seven  and  a  half  tons  of  mangels  ;  a  third  acre, 
with  twenty-six  tons  of  farm-yard  manure,  yielded  twenty- 
eight  and  a  half  tons  of  mangels  ;  and  a  fourth  acre, 
with  thirteen  tons  of  farm-yard  manure  and  two  hundred 
pounds  of  superphosphate,  yielded  thirty-six  tons  of 
mansfels.  So  that  while  thirteen  tons  of  farm-yard 
manure  gave  an  increase  of  twelve  tons  in  the  crop, 
twenty-six  tons  of  farm-yard  manure  gave  only  an  in- 
crease of  thirteen  tons  in  the  crop,  and  thirteen  tons  of 
farm-yard  manure'  with  two  hundred  pounds  of  super- 
phosphate gave  an  increase  in  the  crop  of  twenty  and  a 
half  tons  per  acre. 

The  artificial  manure  in  this  case  is  shown  to  have 


66  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   TAR^,U 

acted  as  a  powerful  and  economical  supplement  to  farm- 
yard manure  wlien  the  latter  was  used  in  moderate 
quantity.  But  there  are  many  cases  in  which  artificial 
manures  must  be  solely  relied  on.  AVhere  land  is  very 
steep  and  hilly,  and  outlying,  it  i;?  often  cheaper  to  pur- 
chase light  and  portable  manures  ;  and  to  sup2)lement 
their  use  in  such  cases,  not  with  the  manure-cart,  but 
by  feeding  sheep  on  the  field  on  the  roots  or  other  green- 
crop  grown  on  the  land. 

Tlie  imj^ortimcc  of  artificial  fertilizers  cannot  be  oyer- 
estimated  in  regard  to  the  maintenance  of  fertility  on 
poor  lands.  Many  of  them  have  acquired  also  an  ad- 
ditional value  on  account  of  their  special  character,  and 
their  special  action  on  the  quality  of  various  crops  grown 
for  industrial  puri30ses,  as  sugar-beet,  flax,  etc. 

The  action  of  manures  is  not,  however,  fully  explained 
by  their  affording  a  direct  supply  of  plant  food  ;  for  many 
of  them  operate  indirectly  to  feed  crops  by  their  chemical 
effects  upon  the  soil.  Thus,  farm-yard  manure,  in  under- 
going decomposition  yields  a  supply  of  carbonic  acid, 
which  mav  act  on  the  mineral  constituents  and  liberate 
their  elements.  Many  mineral  manures  also,  common 
salt,  gypsum,  and  other  saline  matters,  may  react  on  the 
soil,  converting  potash  and  magnesia,  for  instance,  into 
soluble  forms,  and  thus  giving  the  same  result  as  would 
follow  an  immediate  use  of  the  last-named  substances. 

Again,  certain  manures  which  are  used  in  large  doses 
influence  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by  amending  its  texture, 
or  otherwise  modifying  its  ph^^sical  characters— as  we  have 
already  seen  in  the  case  of  marling  and  mixing  of  soils. 
Farm-yard  manure  is  of  great  benefit  in  this  respect,  both 
on  heavy  clays  and  on  light  sandy  soils  ;  for  in  the  one 
case  it  diminishes  tenacity,  and  in  the  other  it  lessens 
porosity  and  helps  to  retain  moisture. 

FarDi-yard  manure  is  a  mixture  of  the  dung  and  urine 


HOME   3IA]S^URE.  67 

of  farm  animals  with  the  straw  and  other  matters  nsed 
as  litter.  It  is  regarded  as  the  typical  manure,  both  be- 
cause it  is  a  ^^ general"  manure,  and  on  account  of  its 
influence  on  the  texture  and  general  character  of  the  soil 
to  which  it  is  applied.  Still  it  is  not  a  perfect  manure. 
It  contains,  no  doubt,  all  the  elements  of  plant-growth; 
but  these  are  not  always  present  in  the  best  proportions. 
To  prevent  a  deficiency  of  one  element,  it  has  to  be  em- 
ployed in  such  large  quantities  as  to  furnish  other  ele- 
ments more  or  less  in  excess  of  what  is  actually  required 
by  the  crop.  Its  great  bulk  also  makes  it  extremely  ex- 
pensive to  handle.  It  is,  moreover,  exceptionally  liable 
to  waste,  and  it  yields  its  results  very  slowly. 

In  a  ton  of  ordinary  farm-yard  manure  there  is  con- 
tained about  thirteen  pounds  of  nitrogen,  ten  and  a-half 
pounds  of  potash,  and  ten  and  a-half  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid.  The  per  centages  are  of  course,  variable. 
Mr.  Warington,  in  the  *^  Chemistry  of  the  Farm,"*  puts 
the  amount  at  nine  to  fifteen  pounds  of  nitrogen,  nine  to 
fifteen  pounds  of  potash,  and  four  to  nine  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid.  The  conditions  affecting  the  composi- 
tion and  quality  of  the  manure  are — (1)  the  kind  and 
condition  of  animal  producing  it;  (2)  the  food  of  the 
animal ;  (3 j  the  kind  and  quantity  of  litter  used ;  and  (4) 
the  care  bestowed  upon  its  after-management. 

1.  TJie  A7iimal. — The  quality  of  the  manure  varies, 
not  only  with  the  class  of  animal — horse,  cow,  sheep,  pig, 
etc. — which  produces  it,  but  with  the  age  and  character 
of  the  animal.  An  adult  animal  takes  comparatively 
little  of  the  nitrogenous  and  ash  elements  from  the  food, 
because  what  it  chiefly  requires  is  the  carbonaceous  matter 
to  keep  up  respiration  and  to  form  fat.  A  young  and 
growing  .animal  has  more  varied  wants  to  suj^ply  in  the 
formation  of  both  bone  and  muscle,  and  therefore  it  re- 

*  Published  by  Orange  Judd  &  Co. 


68  THE   SOIL  OP  THE   FARM. 

quires  far  more  of  the  nitrogenous  and  asli  elements  in 
its  food  to  accomplish  this  growth,  in  addition  to  what 
is  necessary  to  sustain  the  vital  system  and  to  lay  on  fat. 
The  same  is  more  or  less  true  of  breeding  animals,  and  of 
animals  producing  milk  and  wool.  Unless  both  these 
and  the  young  growing  animals  are  fed  on  food  rich  in 
nitrogenous  and  ash  elements,  the  manure  from  them 
must  be  comparatively  poor.  In  the  case  of  the  mature 
animal,  however,  the  manure  is  not  materially  less  fertil- 
izing than  the  original  food. 

2.  The  Food. — More  important  even  than  the  kind  of 
animals  as  affecting  the  quality  of  the  manure,  is  the  food 
used  in  feeding  them.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  waste 
tissue  thrown  off  by  the  animal  which  goes  into  the 
manure,  but,  speaking  generally,  the  excrement  represents 
that  portion  of  the  food  wliich  is  not  used  by  the  animal. 
The  extent  to  which  the  constitu tents  of  the  food  are 
made  use  of  by  the  animal  will  depend  on  the  digestibili- 
ty of  the  feeding  substance,  and  on  the  assimilative  power 
of  the  animal  for  the  food  in  question.  Oil-cakes  yield 
the  richest  manure ;  then  come  beans,  peas,  malt-dust, 
bran,  clover  hay,  cereal  grain,  meadow  hay,  roots,  and 
straw,  in  the  order  named. 

3.  The  Litter  is  an  important  part  of  farm-yard  ma- 
nure, not  only  on  account  of  the  manure  matters  con- 
tained in  it,  which  are  considerable,  but  also  as  affecting 
the  texture  and  consequent  fermentation  of  the  manure. 
The  quantity  of  litter  should  be  sufficient  to  absorb  and 
retain  the  greater  part  of  the  liquid  manure,  and  the  sur- 
plus, if  any,  should  be  pumped  up  at  intervals  and  dis- 
tributed over  the  manure  so  as  to  keep  the  whole  in  a 
proper  state  of  moisture.  If  the  litter  is  deficient,  tlie 
manure  l)ecomes  too  moist,  and  the  most  valuable  part 
drains  off,  unless  means  are  taken  to  collect  it  in  the 
liquid  tank.  AVliether  the  manure  is  too  moist  or  too 
dry,  fermentation  is  equally  checked ;  in  the  former  case 


HOME   MAKURE.  69 

by  the  exclusion  of  air,  and  in  the  latter  case  by  the  vv-ant 
of  moisture. 

Management  of  Farm  Manure. — Air  and  moisture  are 
both  essential  to  the  proper  fermentation  of  manure.  If 
it  is  too  dry,  it  burns,  gets  "^fire-fanged,"  white  and  mil- 
dewed; and  the  high  temperature  of  the  manure  pro- 
motes the  formation  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  is 
volatile  and  easily  escapes  into  the  air.  This  occurs 
when  the  temperature  exceeds  eighty  degrees  F.  But 
when  the  manure  is  kept  moist  and  the  temperature  low, 
fermentation  stops  with  the  formation  of  organic  acids 
which  take  up  ammonia.  The  salts  thus  formed  are 
present  in  the  black  decomposed  dung,  and  the  ammonia 
in  them  is  in  a  soluble  form,  but  not  volatile.  A  strong 
smell  arising  from  the  manure  makes  it  evident  that  a 
wasteful  fermentation  is  going  on.  But  this  fermentation 
is  easily  controlled.  A  quick  fermentation  will  be  in- 
duced by  placing  the  manure  lightly  in  heaps  so  as  to 
allow  the  air  to  get  at  it;  a  slower  fermentation,  by  tread- 
ing the  manure  down  firmly,  as  in  carting  over  it;  and  a 
cool  fermentation  by  keeping  the  heaiD  moderately  moist. 
Liquid  manure  should  be  used  either  when  it  is  necessary 
to  moisten  the  heap,  so  as  to  check  excessive  fermen- 
tation, or,  unless  it  be  very  dilute,  just  before  carting 
the  heap  on  to  the  land. 

The  waste  of  farm-yard  manure  may  arise  from  two 
causes — (1)  from  excessive  supplies  of  water,  as  rain  falling 
on  and  washing  it;  or  (2)  from  volatilization,  or  over- 
heating, and  the  consequent  escape  of  ammonia. 

The  waste  by  water  is  generally  recognized,  but  not 
sufficiently  guarded  against;  and  as  a  consequence  the 
manure  is  wasted  "by  rains,  soakings,  and  drainage,  which 
carry  off  the  very  essence  of  it.  Where  no  means  are 
taken  to  preserve  or  retain  this  portion,  the  loss  under 
ordinary  circumstanc33   amounts   to  from  one-third    to 


70  THE    SOIL    OF   THE   FARM. 

one-lialf  of  the  whole  value  of  the  manure.  The  soluble 
nitrates  are  washed  away  by  tlie  raiu,  and  the  loss  of 
course  is  greatest  in  rotten  manure,  whicli  contains  a 
great  deal  of  its  nitrogen  in  a  soluble  condition. 

The  loss  by  volatilization  is  not  so  great.  Where  the 
manure  is  kept  in  a  proper  condition  as  to  temperature 
and  moisture,  little  ammonia  will  escape  into  the  air  so 
long  as  the  manure  is  not  disturbed  by  turning,  as  during 
fermentation  organic  acids  are  produced  in  such  abundance 
as  to  combine  with  the  greater  part  of  the  ammonia,  and 
form  soluble  salts  of  ammonia. 

Manure  made  under  cover  is  preserved  from  waste  by 
rainfall  and  drainage;  but  there  is  danger  of  it  becoming 
too  dry  if  the  litter  is  abundant,  unless  it  is  moistened  at 
intervals.  To  feed  cattle  in  covered  yards,  taking  care  to 
si^read  tlie  litter  evenly,  and  not  to  supply  more  than  is 
sufficient  to  keep  them  dry,  is  a  great  economy  so  far  as 
their  manure  is  concerned.  Box-fed  manure  and  manure 
from  roofed  yards  have  been  proved  often  enough  to  be 
greatly  superior  to  that  which  is  made  in  yards  which 
receive,  not  only  the  rainfall  proper  to  their  own  area,  but 
that  of  adjoining  roofs  unprovided  with  eaves  and  down- 
spouts for  its  removal. 

When  manure  heaps  are  formed,  a  thick  layer  of  dry  soil, 
ditch  cleanings,  vegetable  refuse,  or  peat  sliould  be  laid 
down  for  a  bottoming,  and  the  earth  or  other  admixture 
sliould  be  iuterstratified  in  layers  with  the  manure 
throughout,  so  as  to  absorb  any  liquid  which  may  tend  to 
escape  from  it;  and  the  whole  should  also  be  to]ii)ed  with 
a  firm  beaten  layer  of  earth  in  order  to  exclude  the  rain. 
Dry  peat  is  an  excellent  substance  for  mixing  with  manure, 
as  it  not  only  absorbs  the  liquid  portions  of  it,  but 
somewhat  fixes  the  ammonia.  A  good  peat  will  absorb 
about  two  per  cent,  of  amm:)inia,  and  when  dry  will  stdl 
retain  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  per  cent.,  or  nearly 


HOME   MANURE.  71 

twice  as  much  as  would  he  yielded  by  the  whole  nitrogen 
of  an  equal  weight  of  farm -yard  manure. 

Gypsum,  charcoal,  and  lime  are  sometimes  added  to 
manure  heaps  with  the  view  of  fixing  their  ammonia;  but 
wiiere  the  mana":einent  of  the  manure  is  otherwise  sfood, 
these  are  not  much  required.  Chalk  and  lime  are  found 
to  have  a  very  good  eifect  in  preventing  escape  of  am- 
monia from  farm-yard  manure,  provided  it  is  fresh  ma- 
nure. Applied  to  rotten  manure,  caustic  lime  causes  a 
great  loss  of  ammonia. 

As  far  as  possible  the  formation  of  field  manure-heaps 
is  to  be  avoided;  but  if  they  must  be  formed,  the  i:>ractice 
of  turning  the  manure  should  be  avoided.  The  labor  of 
doing  so,  is  mostly  lost,,  and  much  manure  is  wasted.  It 
is  best  in  every  sense  to  cart  the  manure  direct  from  the 
yards  upon  the  land  and  spread  it  at  once.  The  questiou 
of  immediate  plowing  in,  or  covering  it,  is  of  less 
consequence  than  has  generally  been  imagined;  but  on 
light  soils  the  practice  of  immediate  plowing  under  is 
advisable. 

We  must  add,  as  a  somewhat  disheartening  comment 
upon  the  whole  of  these  directions  and  suggestions,  the 
conclusions  of  the  most  experienced  agricultural  chemist 
of  the  dav. 

"  I  am  bound  to  confess,"  says  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  ''  that 
I  am  just  as  helpless  in  regard  to  the  management  or  im- 
provement of  manure  as  the  most  old-fashioned  farmer. 
It  is  of  no  use  fixing  ammonia  Avhere  there  is  hardly  any 
to  fix.  It  costs  nothing  to  look  at  the  dung  with  the  idea 
of  doing  something  to  it;  but  you  certainly  cannot  touch 
it  without  going  to  some  considerable  expense.  I,  for 
my  part,  am  content,  therefore,  to  let  it  alone.  All  labor 
expended  on  dung- adds  certainly  to  the  cost,  but  it  does 
not  add  with  the  same  certainty  to  its  value. 

'^  As  I  grow  a  good  many  mangels,"  he  goes  on  to  say, 
''  I  apply  the  greater  part  of  the  farm-yard  manure  to 


72  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

this  crop,  my  practice  being  to  open  out  the  furrow  and 
apply  about  twenty  tons  per  acre,  then,  after  earthing  up 
the  furrows,  I  jiroceed  to  drill  the  seed  upon  the  top.  If 
I  did  not  grow  turnips,  I  should  ajoply  the  dung  in  au- 
tumn to  clover  or  grass.  This,  of  course,  would  involve 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  but  I  should  not  fear  much 
loss  on  this  account,  or,  at  all  events,  I  do  not  think 
there  would  be  more  by  this  process  than  by  any  other." 

Application  of  Farm  Manure. — If  farm  manure  is 
applied  in  autumn,  there  need  be  no  fear  of  loss  from  or- 
dinary rains,  on  stiff  land  at  least.  The  time  of  year, 
however,  as  well  as  the  mode  of  application  which  may 
be  best,  must  depend  on  what  crop  it  is  to  benefit  most, 
and  on  the  course  of  cropping. 

For  potatoes,  beans,  turnijis,  and  other  fallow  crops, 
the  dung  may  be  put  on  the  stubbles  without  much  risk 
of  loss  before  they  are  broken  up;  or  it  may  be  ai)plied  in 
the  manner  already  described  by  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  for  his 
mangel  crops,  at  the  time  of  planting  or  sowing.  AVhere 
the  land  is  to  be  worked  on  the  flat,  tlie  former  i^ractice 
is  preferable,  provided  the  dung  is  in  stock  early  enough. 
In  England  potatoes  are  never  grown  witliout  manure; 
mangels  and  beans  seldom  are  either;  but  turnips  arc  fre- 
quently grown  with  the  aid  of  artificial  manures  only,  the 
land  in  this  case  benefiting  by  the  sheep-fold  trfterwards. 
For  potatoes,  mangels,  and  beans,  fifteen  to  twenty  tons 
of  dung  are  usually  applied  per  acre;  and  in  most  cases 
this  is  supplemented  with  two,  three,  oreven  five  hundred 
pounds  of  light  manures.  For  turnips  about  ten  tons  of 
dung  and  the  above  quantities  of  auxiliary  manures  arc 
reckoned  sufficient. 

For  the  wheat  crop,  the  manure  is  applied  on  the  clover 
lea  before  plowing.  Some  prefer  to  manure  the  clover  be- 
fore the  first  cutting,  others  between  the  first  and  second 
cutting ;  and  others  again  not  until  immediately  before 


HOME   MANURE.  73 

the  clover  lea  is  broken  up.     The  quantity  applied  is 
usually  from  ten  to  twelve  tons  per  acre. 

On  meadows  and  grass  lauds,  autumn  manuring  is 
best,  but  it  is  not  desirable  to  use  fresh  and  unrotted 
dung  in  this  case,  and  it  is  best  applied  in  the  form  of 
compost.  From  ten  to  fifteen  cart-loads  per  acre  maybe 
given  on  grass  land,  according  to  the  length  of  time  it  is 
intended  to  last. 

The  old  plan  of  bestowing  all  the  manure  for  a  rotation 
on  one  crop  is  now  being  less  followed.  Although  some 
crops  benefit  more  by  an  application  of  dung  than  others, 
it  is  deemed  better  to  use  it  oftener,  and  to  give  less  of  it 
at  once  ;  and  as  only  a  given  amount  can  be  produced  for 
each  acre,  the  smaller  dressing  has  to  be  supplemented 
with  artificial  manures. 

Green  l^Ianures. — This  is  the  term  given  to  crops 
which  are  grown  for  the  purpose  of  being  plowed  in  on 
the  land  which  produced  them.  This  was  once  a  com- 
mon practice,  but  the  availability  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers, combined  Avith  the  high  prices  obtainable  for  ])eef 
and  mutton,  has  rendered  the  farmer  more  careless  than 
he  once  was  of  the  slower  and  more  natural  methods  of 
maintaining  or  increasing  fertility. 

By  plowing  in  a  green  crop,  the  surface  soil  is  enriched 
not  only  by  the  elements  which  the  crop  derived  from 
the  air,  but  also  by  mineral  and  vegetable  matters  which 
were  brought  up  by  it  from  the  subsoil.  The  green  crop 
thus  acts  the  part  of  a  gatherer  of  plant  food,  and  makes 
it  easier  for  any  crop  sown  after  this  green-manuring  to 
get  its  supplies  from  the  decomposing  vegetation  present 
m  the  soil. 

The  plants  best  adapted  for  green-manuring,  are  those 
which  derive  their  support    principally   from   the    air, 
which  grow  rapidly,  which  cover  the  ground  well,  and 
4 


74  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

whose  roots  penetrate  deep,  and  ramify  extensively 
throughout  the  soil. 

Among  the  various  plants  grown  for  green-manuring 
are  white  mustard,  buckwheat,  rye,  rape,  vetches,  Tri- 
foUum  incarnatum,  and  common  clover.  In  many  coun- 
tries spurry,  borage,  and  white  lupin,  are  also  largely 
grown  for  the  same  purpose.  Many  of  these  crops,  when 
plowed  in  green,  are,  weight  for  weight,  almost  as  good 
as  farm-yard  manure,  containing  large  quantities  of  ni- 
trogen, phosjohoric  acid,  and  potash.  The  great  weight 
of  decomposable  vegetable  matter  contained  in  the  root 
as  well  as  the  Iteaf  of  a  crop,  grown  for  being  plowed  in 
as  manure,  is  to  be  considered  in  estimating  its  effect  as  a 
fertilizer.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  to  this  especially 
is  due  the  fertilizing  effect  of  a  clover  stubble  when 
plowed  in  as  a  preparation  for  the  following  wheat  crop. 

Eight  to  twelve  tons  per  acre  may  be  grown  of  any  of 
the  crops  we  have  named  with  the  aid  of  guano.  White 
mustard  comes  to  maturity  in  six  or  eight  weeks,  and 
tv/o  or  three  crops  of  it  might  bo  grown  on  the  same  land 
in  a  single  season,  after  an  early  summer  crop  of  peas  and 
potatoes.  Only  a  light  plowing  is  needed,  and  less  than 
a  peck  of  mustard-seed  will  seed  an  acre,  at  a  trifling 
cost.  Some  of  the  other  crops  are  not  much  less  rapid 
growers,  and  are  also  inexpensive  to  cultivate. 

Green-manuring  ])rod aces  the  greatest  effect  on  light 
sandy  soils  in  dry  climates  ;  but  it  is  profitably  practised 
also  on  heavy  soils.  The  green  crop  should,  if  possible, 
be  plowed  in  just  before  the  time  of  flowering,  or  at  all 
events  after  it  has  arrived  at  considerable  growth.  The 
season  of  the  year  for  ])lowing  in  must  depend  upon  the 
nature  of  the  crop  ;  but  the  operation  is  best  performed 
in  the  heat  of  summer,  as  the  conditions  for  rapid  decom- 
position are  then  actively  present,  after  the  plants  are 
turned  in.  To  cover  them  effectually,  they  reiiuireto  be 
first  heavily  rolled.     A  skim  coulter  should  be  used  in 


HOME   MAKUEE.  75 

the  plow  that  is  employed,  and  the  plowing  should  be 
deep  enough  to  retain  moisture  about  the  decaying 
plants. 

The  Sheepfold. — In  districts  where  bare  summer  fal- 
lows are  adopted,  the  practice  of  folding  is  carried  on  very 
differently  from  where  ^en  crop  cultivation  prevails. 
The  method  there  is  to  bring  the  flock  from  the  pasture, 
where  it  is  fed  by  day,  and  fold  it  upon  a  fallow  by  night. 
When  one  fold  is  sufficiently  manured,  another  one  is  en- 
closed, the  hurdles  being  shifted  daily. 

The  flock  under  this  system  is  a  mere  working  machine, 
whose  chief  purpose  was  that  of  a  manure  carrier.  It  is 
probable  that  more,  in  mutton  and  wool,  is  lost  in  this 
way  than  is  gained  in  manure.  Nor  is  that  the  only  ob- 
jection to  this  system.  It  is  made  the  means  of  enrich- 
ing one  part  of  the  farm  at  the  expense  of  another  ;  as 
Mr.  Bake  well  put  it,  it  robs  Peter  to  pay  Paul.  The 
grass  land  is  starved  to  feed  the  arable.  This  is  the  com- 
mon practice  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Sussex  downs, 
where  farms  include  a  stretch  of  the  down  land  as  part 
of  their  area. 

Another  method  is  to  confine  the  flock  altogother  on 
the  fallows,  and  feed  with  tares,  clover,  or  other  forage 
plant  brought  to  it.  The  sheep  are  better  off  under  this 
system  ;  but  it  incurs  a  great  deal  of  labor  in  cutting  and 
carting  forage  ;  and  it  starves  the  land  which  grew  the 
crop.  Folding  is  now  more  generally  practised  on  land 
under  roots  or  green  crop,  where  the  sheep  feed  at  their 
ease,  and  manure  the  ground  at  the  same  time. 

To  eat  off  a  crop  with  sheep  is  theoretically  less  en- 
riching than  to  plow  it  in  green;  and  if  the  soil  is  poor, 
thin,  sandy,  and  deficient  in  organic  matter,  plowing  in 
green  crops  will  be  a  very  advantageous  method  of  im- 
proving it.  But  even  on  such  soils,  when  mutton  or 
wool  is  an  object,  it  may  be  better  to  feed  off'  the  crop. 


76  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

and  enrich  the  ground  by  consuming  quantities  of  cake 
or  corn  along  with  it. 

On  light  soils,  sheep-folding  is  in  many  cases  universal 
as  a  preparation  for  wheat;  and  it  is  the  chief  dependence 
in  all  districts  where  the  quantity  of  farm-yard  manure  is 
insufficient.  Poor  clay  may  likewise  be  speedily  rendered 
fertile  by  heavily  folding  in  summer  time  and  dry  weather 
with  sheep  fed  on  cake,  grain,  and  hay,  in  addition  to 
vetches,  cabbages,  or  other  green  crop  brought  to  them. 
The  practice  is  often  as  advantageously  followed  on  grass 
land  as  on  arable.  On  wet,  undrained  land,  and  stiff 
clays,  folding  is  injurious,  unless  it  is  done  in  very  dry 
weather. 

An  acre  of  good  clover  may  feed  more  than  one  hun- 
dred sheep  one  week  ;  and  an  acre  of  turnips  may  feed 
two  hundred  and  forty  sheep  for  the  same  period.  Say 
that  a  sheep  consumes,  and  wastes  together,  twenty- 
eight  pounds  of  roots  daily.  Then  eighty  sheep  will  con- 
sume one  ton  daily  ;  and  two  hundred  and  forty  sheep 
will  feed  off  a  crop  of  twenty-one  tons  in  a  week. 

Composts  are  mixtures  of  fertilizing  substances,  which, 
being  allowed  to  undergo  chemical  changes  for  a  con- 
siderable time  in  heaps,  become  more  valuable  than  they 
could  have  been  if  applied  separately.  Peat,  road-scrap- 
ings, clearings  of  ditches,  weeds,  loaves,  lime  and  farm- 
yard manures,  are  the  substances  used  to  form  composts. 

Since  the  introduction  of  artificial  and  light  manures, 
the  mixing  of  heavy  materials,  earth  and  lime,  etc., 
with  other  manuring  substances  seldom  pays  for  the 
labor  expeuded. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  artificial  manures  are 
best  applied  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  compost,  i.e,, 
mixed  with  some  bulky  material  of  less  value  in  order  to 
its  more  even  distribution. 


HOME  MAKUEE.  77 

Lime. — Quick  or  burnt  lime  may  be  said  to  exert  a 
three-fold  influence  as  a  fertilizer.  It  is  a  direct  source 
of  plant  food  ;  it  unlocks  and  renders  available  the  stores 
of  inert  food,  both  mineral  and  organic,  contained  in  the 
soil ;  and  it  ameliorates  the  texture  of  clays. 

As  all  crops  require  a  certain  amount  of  lime,  in  order 
to  carry  on  and  perfect  their  growth,  a  soil  deficient  in 
this  mineral  substance  can  never  be  a  very  productive 
one,  until  the  deficiency  is  made  good. 

It  is  in  its  second  character,  perhaps,  that  lime  does 
its  most  important  work.  It  decomposes  all  kinds  of 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  and  corrects  any  acidity  due 
to  the  presence  of  organic  acids.  It  assists  to  decompose 
certain  salts  whose  bases  contribute  to  the  food  of  plants, 
and  it  acts  in  facilitating  nitrification.  In  all  these  re- 
spects it  may  be  said  to  digest  and  prepare  general  plant- 
food,  though  it  does  not  in  itself  furnish  more  than  one 
of  the  ingredients  which  plants  require  from  the  soil.  It 
also  helps  to  retain  certain  soluble  manures  in  the  soil, 
and  it  economizes  the  use  of  potash ;  certain  crops,  such 
as  roots  and  clover,  w^here  potash  is  not  abundant  in  the 
soil,  having  to  some  extent  the  power  of  utilizing  lime  in 
its  place.  When  we  add  that  lime  improves  the  quality 
of  grain,  grasses,  and  other  crops,  the  finer  grasses  on 
certain  lands  refusing  to  grow  until  the  land  has  been 
limed  ;  that  it  is  the  only  known  cure  for  ^^  finger  and 
toe"  m  turnips;  that  it  hastens  the  maturity  of  crops; 
anS  that  it  destroys  insects,  and  checks  the  growth  of 
moss  and  weeds  in  the  soil — it  will  be  seen  how  various 
and  important  is  the  work  it  performs. 

The  effect  of  lime  on  the  mechanical  texture  of  many 
soils  is  also  great.  It  pulverizes  and  lightens  strong 
soils,  at  once  improving  their  drainage  and  rendering 
them  easier  tilled.  On  peaty  soils  it  reduces  the  excess 
of  organic  matter.  It  also  improves  the  texture  of  light 
soils,  provided  an  overdose  is  not  applied,  even  when 


78  THE  SOIL  OF  THE   FARM. 

they  contain  but  little  vegetable  matter;  the  avidity  of 
the  lime  for  moisture,  added  to  the  chemical  changes 
brought  about  by  it,  having  the  effect  of  increasing  their 
absorptive  and  retentive  powers  in  a  considerable  degree. 

The  quantity  of  lime  applied  need  not  be  large,  but 
may  vary,  according  to  circumstances,  from  0.05  to  .5 
per  cent.,  by  weight,  of  the  cultivated  soil.  On  a  soil 
ten  inches  deep  an  application  of  one  ton  per  acre  would 
represent  a  dressing  of  0.05  per  cent.;  and  ten  tons  per 
acre  will  equal  .5  per  cent.  In  actual  practice  more 
than  five  or  six  tons  per  acre  is  seldom  api:)lied.  This 
quantity  may  be  required  for  strong  land,  or  for  land 
containing  much  organic  matter  in  an  inert  state;  but 
for  light  land  with  little  vegetable  matter,  occasioual 
dressings  of  one  to  two  tons  per  acre  will,  in  most  cases, 
be  found  sufficient. 

A  deep  soil  requires  a  heavier  dressing  of  lime  than  a 
shallow  soil;  and  deep  tillage  will  call  for  larger  applica- 
tions than  where  the  cultivation  is  shallower.  A  sandy 
soil  requires  less  lime  than  a  heavy  clay;  and  soils  poor 
m  vegetable  matter  will  need  smaller  dressings  of  lime 
than  soils  that  are  rich  in  organic  matter.  A  small 
quantity  of  lime  will  have  greater  effect  on  drained  lands 
than  a  larger  dose  on  w^et  and  undrained  land.  Green 
crops  will  generally  benefit  more  by  lime  than  corn  crops. 

There  are  few  soils  in  which  some  lime  is  not  already 
present;  but  the  smaller  this  quantity,  the  better,  as  a 
rule,  will  the  soil  pay  for  an  artificial  ap})lication.  The 
form  in  which  the  lime  exists  in  the  soil,  is,  however,  im- 
portant. If  in  the  form  of  silicate,  or  even  gy])sum,  it 
will  pay  better  to  add  lime  to  the  soil,  than  if  the  lime 
present  had  existed,  as  carbonate.  It  will  also  ]iay  better 
to  apply  lime  to  land  that  has  never  been  limed,  tlian  to 
land  where  it  has  been  previously  ap])licd.  The  quantity 
of  lime  necessary,  as  well  as  the  kind  of  lime  that  should 
be  added,  will  thus  be  much  influenced  by  the  composi- 


HOME   MAJEURE.  79 

tion  and  texture  of  the  soil.  Small  dressings  at  frequent 
intervals  are  now  the  rule.  Instead  of  applying  four  to 
eight  tons  per  acre  once  in  fifteen  or  nineteen  years,  as 
formerly,  it  is  considered  more  economical,  on  land 
which  has  been  previously  limed,  to  apply  it  every  six  or 
eight  years  in  quantities  not  exceeding  one  to  two  tons 
per  acre. 

Where  the  opposite  course  is  adopted  there  is  consider- 
able waste  and  a  gradually  diminishing  effect.  A  certain 
quantity  of  the  lime  is  dissolved  and  removed  by  drainage 
waters,  and  the  remainder  in  a  few  years  sinks  below  the 
cultivated  depth  ;  or  chemical  changes  take  place  which 
render  it  effete.  On  arable  land  the  plow  for  a  season 
or  two  brings  it  back  to  the  surface;  but  after  a  time  it 
gets  beyond  the  depth  of  the  plow,  and  is  as  much  lost 
as  if  the  land  had  not  been  cultivated.  This  strong  ten- 
dency of  lime  to  sink  into  the  subsoils  ought  to  teach  us, 
when  liming  land,  not  to  plow  the  lime  in,  but  to  keej)  it 
as  near  the  surface  as  possible.  The  land  should  be 
plowed  first,  then  the  lime  sj^read,  and  simply  harrowed 
in. 

Evidence  recently  supplied  shows  that  the  effect  of 
lime  is  most  durable  upon  pastures  that  are  grazed  :  it 
lasts  longer  upon  good  than  upon  bad  land;  and  longer 
uj)on  clays  and  heavy  loams  than  upon  light  land.  On 
the  same  authority  we  are  told  that  a  full  dressing  of 
lime  endures  frome  seven  to  thirty  years.  This  is  not 
very  definite,  but  with  the  liability  to  so  many  conflicting 
influences,  these  extreme  differences  are  easily  accounted 
for. 

On  arable  land  the  lime  should  be  applied  during  the 
fallow  year.  It  matters  little  whether  this  is  done  in  au- 
tumn or  in  early  spring.  Convenience  of  carting,  and 
opportunity  for  getting  the  lime  on  the  land  will  be  the 
chief  guides  here.  The  lime  slakes  best  and  quickest 
when  laid  down  in  small  heaps  and  slightly  covered  with 


80  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

fine  soil.  This  saves  re-filling  and  re-carting.  If  the 
heaps  are  put  down  ten  yards  apart  each  way,  there  will  be 
forty-eight  or  forty-nine  heaps  per  acre;  and  fifty-pound 
heaps  at  that  rate  would  give  a  dressing  of  twenty-four 
hundred  pounds  per  acre.  If  the  heaps  are  placed  fiye 
by  five  yards  apart,  the  dressing  w^ill  be  four  times  as 
much,  or  nine  thousand  six  hundred  pounds  per  acre. 

Except  on  old  mossy  land,  lime  is  best  applied  to  grass 
land  in  the  form  of  compost;  and  the  application  should 
be  made  in  early  winter,  so  that  the  lime  may  work  into 
the  vegetable  surface  before  sj^ring  growth  commences. 
The  lime  may  be  previously  slaked,  or  a  compost  formed, 
in  a  corner  of  the  field.  It  should  not  be  put  out  on  the 
land  in  small  heaps,  as  in  the  case  of  arable  land,  but 
spread  direct  from  the  cart. 

Limestone  and  Lime. — Within  a  few  years  the  extra- 
ordinary claim  has  been  made,  that  finely-ground  lime- 
stone was  not  only  of  equal  value  with,  but  was  actually 
superior  as  a  fertilizer  to  lime.  This  assertion  by  dealers 
in  ground  limestone,  and  by  those  who  had  grinding  ma- 
chinery for  sale,  was  apparently  sustained  by  the  certifi- 
cates of  persons  who  claimed  to  have  made  comparative 
trials  of  limestone  and  lime.  This  newly  discovered 
value  of  limestone,  being  contrary  to  all  previous  experi- 
ence, and  directly  opposed  to  the  know^n  chemical  proper- 
ties of  the  two  forms  of  lime,  was  the  subject  of  numer- 
ous inquiries  by  the  readers  of  the  ''American  Agricultur- 
alist," to  which  the  editors  of  that  Journal  made  the 
following  reply  : 

Limestone  is  a  most  widely  distributed  mineral,  one  of 
its  purest  forms  being  known  as  marble,  and  is  found 
almost  all  over  the  United  States  of  various  qualities  and 
degrees  of  purity.  It  is  a  carbonate  of  lime,  that  is,  lime 
combined  with  carbonic  acid.  If  a  fragment  of  limestone 
is  placed  in  a  glass  of  water,  and  a  little  strong  acid  is 


HOME   MAIS^URE.  81 

added,  the  carbonic  acid  is  set  free,  and  we  see  it  pass  ofE 
as  bubbles  rising  through  the  water.  Limestone  is  so 
slightly  dissolved  by  water  that  it  is  tasteless.  It  takes 
one  thousand  six  hundred  parts  of  water  to  dissolve  one 
part  of  limestone.  Water,  in  which  there  is  much  car- 
bonic acid,  dissolves  a  considerable  amount  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  If  a  small  piece  of  limestone  be  kept  at  a  strong 
red  heat  for  some  hours,  it  will  be  only  about  half  as 
heavy  as  the  original  stone.  What  has  it  lost  in  the 
burning?  If  tested  with  acid,  as  before,  no  bubbles  of 
gas  will  be  given  off.  The  heat  has  driven  out  all  the 
carbonic  acid;  it  is  no  longer  a  carbonate  of  lime,  but 
simply  lime  (an  oxide  of  the  metal  calcium,  or  calcic 
oxide,  as  the  chemists  have  it).  Limestone  burned  in 
kilns  produces  lime,  often  called  quick-lime.  If  a  lump 
of  freshly  burned  lime  have  water  gradually  put  upon  it, 
it  soon  becomes  hot;  in  a  little  while  it  swells  up,  cracks, 
and  falls  into  a  very  white  powder;  though  much  water 
has  been  added,  the  powder  is  quite  dry.  The  water  has 
united  with  the  lime,  making  a  solid,  caustic  or  slaked 
lime.  Lime  exposed  takes  up  moisture  from  the  air,  and 
we  have  air-slaked  lime.  Slaked  lime  with  enough  water 
forms  whitewash,  or  '^milk  of  lime."  On  standing,  the 
greater  part  of  the  lime  will  settle,  leaving  clear  lime- 
water — a  saturated  solution  of  lime;  that  is,  the  water 
has  taken  up  all  it  can  dissolve,  for  at  ordinary  tempera- 
ture it  requires  several  hundred  parts  of  water  to  dissolve 
one  part  or  quick-lime.  If  clear  lime-water  be  placed  in 
a  glass,  and  with  a  straw  or  pipe-stem  the  breath  be 
forced  into  it,  the  lime-water  will  soon  become  cloudy, 
and  then  milky.  Set  the  glass  aside,  and  a  fine  white 
powder  will  settle  at  the  bottom,  leaving  the  water  clear 
above.  The  breath  contains  carbonic  acid;  this,  when 
forced  into  the  lime  water,  unites  with  the  lime,  forming 
carbonate,  the  same  as  unburned  limestone,  which,  being 
little  soluble,  separates  as  a  white  powder.     If  we  con- 


82  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

tinue  to  breathe  into  the  lime-water  after  it  has  become 
milky,  it  will  soon  become  perfectly  clear  as  at  the  start. 
The  continued  breathing  supplies  more  carbonic  acid 
than  is  needed  to  convert  the  lime  into  an  insoluble  car- 
bonate; the  excess  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  water  re- 
dissolves  the  carbonate.  Heating  this  solution  drives  off 
the  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  and  the  carbonate  of  lime 
will  be  deposited  again.  Carbonic  acid  is  always  present 
in  the  atmosphere,  and  when  slaked  lime  is  long  ex- 
posed, it  takes  up  this  acid  and  slowly  becomes  carbonate 
of  lime. 

Why  wc  use  Quick-Lime  upon  the  Land. — All  culti- 
vated plants  contain  lime  in  their  ashes,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered necessary  to  their  proper  growth.  But  soils 
generally  contain  enough  lime  for  the  use  of  the  jolants, 
and  we  apply  it  for  its  action  upon  the  otlier  constituents 
of  the  soil.  Lime  acts  upon  and  greatly  aids  the  decom- 
position of  organic  matter  in  the  soil.  It  is  thought  to 
neutralize  the  organic  acids  contained  in  what  are  called 
**  sour  soils."  In  a  complicated  manner  it  aids  in  the 
fixing  of  ammonia.  It  also  acts  upon  the  inorganic  or 
mineral  constituents  of  the  soil,  and  aids  in  converting 
them  into  forms  in  which  they  can  be  taken  up  by  the 
plants,  especially  in  liberating  potash  from  its  combina- 
tions. The  effect  of  lime  upon  the  mechanical  condition 
of  the  soil  is  an  important  feature.  Upon  heavy  clay 
soils  its  effect  is  most  marked;  the  particles  lose  their  ad- 
hesiveness, and  allow  air  and  water  to  enter.  These  are 
the  leading  effects  that  follow  the  use  of  lime.  In  view 
of  the  claims  made  for  ground,  unburned  limestone,  it 
is  an  important  question  how  far  it  can  produce  the 
above  effects.  That  the  unburned  limestone  will  su]i])ly 
the  demands  of  tlic  ])hint  for  lime,  tliat  it  may  slowly 
neutralize  organic  acids,  and  help  tlie  mechanical  texture 
of  the  soil  seems  very  i)robable.    But  that  it  will  perform 


AUXILIARY   AND   EXCEPTIONAL  MANURES.  83 

one  of  the  most  important  offices,  the  decomposition  of 
organic  matter  in  tlie  soil,  and  convert  that  into  plant 
food  seems  improbable,  because  the  ability  of  lime  to  do 
this  depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  its  avidity  for  car- 
bonic acid,  while  limestone  being  already  a  carbonate, 
has  no  need  of  more.  That  limestone  can  not  produce 
all  the  effects  of  lime  is  shown  by  the  well-known  fact 
that  soils  underlaid  by  limestone,  and  naturally  contain- 
ing a  large  proportion  of  finely  divided  carbonate  of  lime, 
are  as  much  benefited  by  the  use  of  quick-lime  as  are  soils 
deficient  in  limestone. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


AUXILIARY  AND   EXCEPTIONAL  MANURES. 

Guano  :  Statistics. — Prices.— Valuation. — Application. — Bones  :  Bone- 
dust. — Bone-ash. — Superphosphate.— Ground  phosphate.  —  Nitro- 
genous Manures  :  Nitrate  of  soda.— Sulphate  of  ammonia. — Alka- 
line Manures:  Potash. — Kainit. — Gypsum. — Common  salt. — Ashes. 
— Other  Manl-res:  Soot. — Rape-dust.— Fish  refuse.— Blood. — Sea- 
weed.— Sewa.c^e. — Liquid  manure.  —  Application  of  Manures: 
Top-dressing. — Value,  of  manures  from  foods. 

Guano. — The  constituents  of  value  in  guano  are  (1) 
ammonia  and  ammonia-forming  compounds  ;  (2)  soluble 
and  insoluble  phosphates ;  and  (3)  alkaline  salts.  The 
approximate  value  of  any  sample  can  be  arrived  at  by 
multiplying  the  commercial  values  of  these  materials  by 
the  percentage  found  of  each  ingredient.  The  values  of 
ammonia,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  vary  according  to 
the  source  which  supplies  them. 

Analyses  ought  always  to  be  made  before  purchasing; 
and  if  there  be  reason  to  doubt  the  guarantee  of  the  man- 
ufacturer, a  private    analysis  can  be  made  afterwards. 


84  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

"Without  the  knowledge  of  its  composition  thus  acquired, 
the  best  Peruvian  guano,  rich  in  ammonia,  might  be  ex- 
travagantly employed  upon  soils  that  would  be  almost 
equally  benefited  by  the  cheaper  qualities,  of  which  the 
phosphates  are  the  chief  fertilizing  ingredients.  Upon 
light  soils,  especially,  ammoniacal  guano  may  be  used 
wastefully,  owing  to  the  little  obstruction  such  soils  pre- 
sent to  the  escape  of  its  volatile  and  soluble  portions. 
The  full  benefit  of  these  will  be  better  secured  in  the 
stronger  soils,  or  in  composts  prepared  with  the  view  of 
their  absorption  and  retention.  In  such  mixtures  guano 
is  used  most  advantageously.  Of  itself  alone,  it  may 
furnish  all  the  ingredients  required  by  the  plants;  but  its 
activity  and  evanescence  need  to  be  checked  ;  and  on  ac- 
count of  its  caustic  quality,  care  should  be  taken  that  it 
be  not  brought  in  direct  contact  with  the  seed. 

The  quantity  of  best  guano  that  should  be  used  per 
acre  is  generally  rated  at  from  three  to  five  hundred 
pounds,  and  it  should  be  applied  in  damp  weather  so  that 
the  rains  may  gradually  diffuse  it  equally  through  the 
soil.  No  definite  rules,  however,  can  be  given  as  to  what 
soil  will  be  most  benefited  by  guano,  or  as  to  the  neces- 
sary quantity  to  be  employed.  If  used  in  the  compost 
form  it  should  be  mixed,  previous  to  sowing,  with  four 
times  its  weight  of  good  soil;  which  will  avert  the  danger 
of  injury  to  the  seed  and  effect  a  more  equal  distribution 
of  the  manure.  For  grasses  and  clovers,  ten  to  fifteen 
hundred  pounds  of  such  a  mixture  should  be  sown  broad- 
cast in  the  early  spring.  This  will  be  equivalent  to  from 
two  three  hundred  pounds  of  the  guano.  Guano  is  too 
soluble  to  be  applied  with  profit  in  autumn. 

On  corn  crops  no  manure  has  a  more  powerful  effect 
than  guano.  It  is  used  as  a  top-dressing  in  spring  at  the 
rate  of  three  to  four  hundred  pounds  per  acre.  The 
stronger  the  land  is,  the  larger  the  quantity  that  can  be 
applied  with  profit. 


AUXILIARY  a:n^d  exceptio:n^al  makures.         85 

For  turnip  and  other  root  crops,  as  much  as  three  to 
five  hundred  pounds  per  acre  of  Peruvian  guano  are  often 
beneficially  used  on  strong  land  without  other  manure. 
Peruvian  guano  is  too  stimulating  when  applied  in  large 
quantities  to  late  sown  turnips,  promoting  an  excessive 
luxuriance  of  leaf,  and  preventing  the  formiition  of  bulb. 
In  such  cases,  phosphatic  manures  will  yield  better  crops 
at  less  ex2)ense.  It  is  applied  generally  to  the  root  crops 
by  sowing  broadcast  at  their  seed-time. 

Beans  and  potatoes  also  benefit  by  guano,  but  on  most 
soils  it  does  not  possess  the  power  of  sustaining  the 
healthy  growth  of  these  plants  without  something  else  in 
addition. 

Bones  owe  their  value  as  a  fertilizer  partly  to  the  phos- 
phoric acid  which  they  contain,  and  in  a  less  degree  to 
the  combined  nitrogenous  matter  which  they  contain. 
They  are  used  as  manures  either  in  the  form  of  (1)  bone- 
dust,  (2)  as  bone-ash,  or  (3)  after  treatment  with  sulphuric 
acid. 

(1.)  Bone  dust,  or  bone-meal  as  it  is  sometimes  term- 
ed, is  obtained  by  crushing  or  grinding  the  bones  to  a 
kind  of  coarse  powder.  The  finer  the  state  of  division, 
the  more  rapid  is  the  action  of  the  manure,  and  the 
coarser  the  particles,  the  slower  its  effect. 

Steaming  the  bones  previous  to  grinding  them,  dissolves 
out  about  two-thirds  of  the  gelatine,  and  occasions  a  loss 
of  nitrogen  ;  but  they  are  then  easily  reduced  to  a  very 
fine  powder,  and  are  thus  rendered  more  effective  as  a 
manure. 

When  bone-dust  is  prepared  from  bones  that  have  not 
been  steamed,  it  is  best  applied  mixed  with  earth,  or  some 
other  substance,  and  fermented.  Wet  sand,  sawdust, 
stable-droppmgs,  or  any  substance  that  will  induce  fer- 
mentation, may  be  usefully  employed  for  this  purpose. 


86  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

These,  mixed  with  the  bones,  in  the  proportion  of  three 
to  one,  and  moistened  with  the  dniinings  from  the  cattle- 
yards,  will  furnish  a  highly  fertilizing  manure.  The  heap 
requires  to  be  made  up  in  a  covered  shed,  and  having 
been  sutficiently  moistened,  is  left  to  ferment.  The  mix- 
ture is  applied  to  grass  land  at  the  rate  of  thirty  or  forty 
bushels  per  acre  ;  and  to  arable  land  at  the  rate  of  twenty 
or  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre. 

As  a  general  rule,  bone  manures  are  better  adapted  for 
the  liijhter  class  of  soils  than  for  stiff  land.  On  some  soils 
their  use  has  been  attended  with  surprising  effect  ;  but  on 
others,  such  as  clay  soils,  for  example,  as  may  be  already 
naturally  rich  in  phosphates,  the  application  of  bones  is 
of  comparatively  little  benefit. 

(2.)  Bone-ash  is  the  residue  left  afterburning  bones. 
It  consists  of  the  earthy  matter  of  the  bone,  and  amounts 
to  about  sixty-six  per-cent.  of  the  original  weight.  It  is 
chiefly  obtained  from  South  America,  where  large  herds 
of  cattle  are  slaughtered,  and  the  tallow  melted  from  the 
carcass,  in  which  operation  the  bones  of  the  animal  are 
used  as  fuel,  thus  forming  the  bone-ash  of  commerce. 
The  essential  differences  between  crushed  bones,  dissolved 
bones,  and  bone-ash,  arc  that  while  the  first  contains  phos- 
phate of  lime  and  nitrogen,  the  second  contains  in  addition 
soluble  phosphate,  and  the  third  has  been  deprived  of  its 
nitrogen  by  burning.  The  bone-ash  is  chiefly  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  superphosphate  of  lime,  which  only  differs 
from  dissolved  bones  in  that  it  contains  no  gelatine  or 
animal  matter  yielding  nitrogen. 

(3. )  Superphosphate. — By  dissolving  bones  in  sulphuric 
acid  they  are  rendered  more  available  for  the  first  crop, 
and  a  smaller  application  sufiices  at  any  one  time. 

The  bones  arc  first  ground  to  powder,  and  then  treated 
witli  sul])huric  acid  of  specific  gravity  1.00.  A  sufiicient 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  every  ton  of  bone- 


AUXILIARY   AKD   EXCEPTI0:N"AL    MANURES.  87 

dust,  and  thoroughly  incorporated.  In  the  pasty  condi- 
tion to  which  the  sulphuric  acid  reduces  the  bones,  it  is 
quite  impossible  to  apply  it  either  by  hand  or  drill ;  wood- 
ashes,  peat-ashes,  or  even  dry  soil  may  be  used  to  prepare 
them  for  sowing ;  but  quick-lime,  or  powdered  chalk, 
must  not  be  mixed  with  the  dissolved  bones  for  the  pur- 
pose of  drying,  as  the  lime  would  restore  them  to  their 
comparatively  insoluble  condition. 

By  dissolving  bones  their  effect  on  the  turnip  crop  is 
greatly  increased.  Superphosphate  is  applied  at  the  rate  of 
four  to  five  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  when  used  by  itself. 

Superphosphate  is  also  prepared  by  treating  bone-ash 
and  coprolite  or  mineral  phosphate  with  sulphuric  acid. 

The  difference  between  the  effects  produced  by  animal 
phosphate  and  mineral  phosphate  is  virtually  nothing, 
but  the  difference  in  price  is  yery  considerable. 

The  farmer  may  manufacture  his  own  superphosphate. 
An  iron  tank  or  a  strong  wooden  vat  is  used  in  prej)aring 
it,  TJie  bone-ash  or  coprolite  powder  to  be  dissolved  is 
put  into  the  tank,  and  over  it  is  poured  one-fourth  its 
weight  of  water.  AfterAvards  stir  and  mix  well ;  then  add 
sulphuric  acid  ecjual  to  about  half  the  weight  of  bone-ash, 
or  more  of  mineral  phosphate,  and  again  stir  and  mix 
thoroughly.  The  finer  the  division  of  the  ground  phos- 
phate the  more  rapid  and  effectual  is  the  process.  If  am- 
monia is  wanted  in  the  subsequent  manure,  it  can  be  sup- 
plied by  an  addition  of  sulphate  of  ammonia.  After  re- 
moving the  superphosphate  from  the  tank,  if  it  is  placed 
in  a  heap  under  cover  and  allowed  to  remain  for  a  suffi- 
cient time,  the  moisture  will  evaporate  by  the  heat  of  the 
mass.  It  will  lose  in  weight  according  to  the  time  it  re- 
mains in  the  heap,  but  there  will  be  an  increase  in  the 
percentage  of  soluble  phosphate.  The  same  substances 
may  be  used  for  drying  the  superphosphate,  however,  as 
have  been  recommended  for  drying  dissolved  bones. 


88  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

Tlie  soluble  phosphoric  acid  in  superphosphate  on  com- 
ing in  contact  with  lime  in  the  soil  is  rapidly  converted 
into  an  insoluble  form,  and  consequently  it  does  not  rap- 
idly penetrate  the  soil.  This  change  takes  place  with 
certainty  in  a  soil  which  contains  much  calcareous  matter. 
A  few  hours  thus  often  suffices  to  modify  the  easy  solu- 
bility of  the  manure  ;  and  the  more  rapid  the  change  is 
brought  about  the  more  necessary  it  becomes  to  have  the 
superphosphate  in  as  fine  a  state  of  division  as  possible, 
and  well  mixed  with  the  soil.  The  extreme  state  of  di- 
vision in  which,  however,  this  process  leaves  it,  makes 
it  far  more  soluble^n  the  carbonic  acid  rain-water  than 
the  most  finely  divided  bones  or  coprolites  which  had  been 
reduced  by  mechanical  means  ;  and  the  efficiency  of  the 
manure  is  thus  not  materially  impaired. 

It  is  especially  suited  as  a  manure  for  the  turnij)  crop. 
If  used  alone,  as  much  as  four  or  five  hundred  pounds 
per  acre  may  be  applied  with  good  effect ;  but  on  most 
soils  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  smaller  quantity  ;  and  for 
mangel  wurzels  and  potatoes  it  is  best  applied  mixed  with, 
one  hundred  pounds  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  two 
hundred  pounds  of  potash  salts.  For  the  2:»otato  crop, 
from  four  to  six  hundred  pounds  of  superphosphate  may 
be  used,  in  addition  to  farm-yard  manure,  or  ammonia 
and  potash  salts.  As  a  mangel  manure,  suiocrphosphate 
is  considerably  less  effective  than  guano.  On  barley  it 
has  been  largely  used  as  a  top-dressing  of  late  years  at  the 
rate  of  about  three  hundred  pounds  per  acre.  The  oat 
crop,  too,  as  grown  in  the  fen  districts,  receives  a  dressing 
of  superphosphate  with  great  advantage  during  the  spring. 
A  greater  bulk  of  both  grain  and  straw  has  thereby  been 
produced,  and  an  earlier  harvest  is  obtained. 

Ground  Phosphate— Its  value  as  a  fertilizer  is  derived 
from  the  phosphate  of  lime  of  which  the  mineral  is  partly 
composed.     Coprolites,  as  to  seventy  to  eighty  per  cent. 


AUXILIARY   A2s"D   EXCEPTIO^'TAL   3IAXURE3.  C9 

of  their  substance,  are  a  mixed  pliospliato  and  carbonate 
of  lime. 

Althougli  there  seems  to  be  considerable  difference  in 
the  results  obtained  by  different  experiments,  the  general 
conclusion  seems  to  be  that  the  usual  difference  in  the 
effects  produced  by  soluble  and  insoluble  phosphates  is 
much  diminished  when  the  latter  are  reduced  to  very  fine 
powder  and  applied  in  very  large  quantities.  The  pow- 
dered phosphate  is  cheaper  than  the  manufactured  ma- 
nure. But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  an  increased  use 
of  ground  coprolites  would  result  in  increasing  their  cost 
in  the  market,  aud  the  advantage  would  thus  to  some  ex- 
tent be  lost. 

After  fine  grinding,  the  coprolite  powder  may  be  mixed 
with  farm-yard  manure,  either  under  the  cattle  or  else  in 
the  dung  heap,  and  the  carbonic  acid  formed  by  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  dung  tends  to  the  solubility  of  the 
mineral  phosphates  by  actual  superphosphating.  Sixteen 
years  ago.  Professor  Graham  pointed  out  the  greater  ad- 
vantage to  agriculture  of  the  cheap  carbonic  acid  method 
of  superphosphating  than  of  the  dear  sulphuric  acid 
method;  first,  because  it  was  vastly  cheaioer,  and  secondly, 
because  it  did  not  give  rise  to  the  production  of  insoluble 
phosphates. 

Ground  phosphate  requires  to  be  used  in  mucli  larger 
quantities  than  dissolved  phosphate,  if  it  is  to  produce 
equal  results.  As  a  top-dressing  on  grass  land,  however, 
it  should  only  be  applied  in  showery  weather,  so  that  the 
rains  may  wash  it  into  the  soil.  For  barley  and  turnips 
it  is  harrowed  in  or  mixed  with  the  soil;  and  there  also 
it  is  more  effective  in  a  moist  season  than  in  a  dry  one; 
and  its  efficacy  is  in  all  cases  greatly  enhanced  by  com- 
posting it  with  the  substances  mentioned  above  before 
applying  it  to  the  land. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  and  Sulphate  of  Ammonia. — These  are 
the  two  chief  nitrogenous  manures  in  the  market^  and 


90  THE    SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

at  present  prices  the  nitrate  is  the  cheaper  fertilizer  of 
the  two. 

**  The  commercial  value  of  these  two  substances  is 
based  entirely  upon  the  amount  of  nitrogen  which  tliey 
contain.  Having  said  this,  I  by  no  means  wish  to  be  un- 
derstood," says  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  ''  that  the  action  of  the 
two  substances  is  the  same.  Both  supply  the  plant  Avith 
nitric  acid,  but  with  the  sulphate  of  ammonia,  the  forma- 
tion of  nitrate  of  lime  is  attended  with  the  formation  of 
sulphate  of  lime,  and  with  a  considerable  removal  of  the 
soluble  sulphate  of  lime  in  the  soil.  Where  nitrate  of 
soda  is  used,  an  alkali  is  liberated,  which  has  a  decom- 
posing action  upon  the  minerals  of  the  soil.  In  cases 
where  sufficient  potash  is  not  available,  large  amounts  of 
soda  are  also  taken  up  by  'plants  when  manured  with 
nitrate  of  soda.  We  have  found  soda  very  largely  in  pas- 
ture sugar  beets  and  mangels,  but  not  in  potatoes. 

"For  some  reason  which  I  am  unable  to  exi^lain,  the 
application  of  nitrate  to  leguminous  plants  is  more  favor- 
able to  their  growth  than  the  application  of  salts  of 
ammonia.  The  herbage  of  a  permanent  pasture,  where 
nitrate  of  soda  alone,  in  one  case,  and  with  the  addition 
of  minerals  in  another,  is  applied  every  year,  is  of  a 
totally  distinct  character  from  the  herbage  where  salts  of 
ammonia  are  applied  alone,  in  one  case,  and  with  miner- 
als in  another.  I  think,  too,  we  have  evidence  to  show 
that  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil  is  reduced  more 
rapidly  by  nitrate  than  by  ammonia." 

Of  the  two  manures,  nitrate  of  soda  answers  best  in  a 
dry  season,  and  sul|)hate  of  ammonia  in  a  wet  one.  They 
can  only  be  economically  applied  to  land  with  a  growing 
croj)  ready  to  seize  on  tliem.  It  is  therefore  never  ad- 
visable, even  in  a  dry  spring,  to  sow  these  soluble  manures 
as  early  as  the  seed.  Grain  crops  should  be  well  above 
ground,  and  root  crops  should  be  at  least  thinned  and  set 
out,  before  either  ammonia  salts  or  nitrates  are  applied. 


AUXILIARY   AND   EXCEPTION'AL  MAl^URES.  91 

On  wheat  or  grass  land  one  liundred  pounds  of  sulphate 
of  ammonia  or  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  per  acre,  may  be  used  as  a  top-dressing  after 
early  spring  growth  has  commenced;  and  half  as  much 
as  a  supplementary  dressing  at  a  later  period,  if  required. 
The  same  quantities  will  often  be  bestowed  with  profit 
on  the  root  and  green  crops,  giving  the  first  dressing 
about  a  month  after  sowing  and  the  second  at  the  time  of 
the  last  hoeing. 

Potash  Salts. — These  are  most  efficacious  on  grass 
land,  if  well  drained,  and  on  light  sandy  soils.  Grasses, 
potatoes  and  turnips  are  particularly  benefited  by  ma- 
nures of  this  class.  The  chief  source  of  supply  is  kainit. 
Potash  salts  in  kainit  require  to  be  applied  to  the  soil  in 
autumn,  giving  them  time  to  dissolve  in  the  soil.  From 
one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  muriate 
of  potash,  or  from  six  to  eight  hundred  pounds  of  kainit, 
per  acre,  are  applied  in  conjunction  with  other  manures. 

Gypsum,  or  sulphate  of  lime,  is  extensively  employed 
as  a  fertilizer.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  clover, 
grasses,  turnips,  and  potatoes,  but  a  sj)ecial  application 
of  gyj^sum  to  the  soil  has  little  effect  in  our  system  of 
farming.  It  is  abundantly  supplied  to  crops,  in  the 
common  course  of  culture,  in  the  farm  dung  and  in 
superphosphate  or  dissolved  bones  and  other  artificial 
manures. 

The  value  of  gypsum  as  a  fertilizer  is  believed  to  be 
partly  due  to  its  action  in  fixing  volatile  and  escaping 
carbonates  of  ammonia,  and  conveying  them  to  the  roots 
of  plants.  When  carbonate  of  ammonia  comes  in  contact 
with  sulphate  of  lime,  double  decomposition  takes  place, 
carbonate  of  lime  and  sulphate  of  ammonia  being  formed. 
Powdered  gypsum  may  thus  be  used  in  stables  as  a  fixer 
of  ammonia.  It  requires  to  be  m  a  fine  state  of  mechan- 
ical trituration  before  it  is  applied  to  the  soil. 


92  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

Common  Salt  is  an  ingredient  of  crops,  but  most  soils 
supply  it  in  abundance  for  tlie  wants  of  tlie  plant.  Its 
application  is  only  likely  to  be  useful  as  a  source  of  plant 
food  in  growing  such  crops  as  mangels,  onions,  cabbages, 
etc.,  which  contain  a  considerable  percentage  of  chloride 
of  sodium  in  their  ash.  It  is  necessary  only  on  soils 
naturally  deficient  in  salt,  and  situated  so  far  inland  as  to 
be  beyond  the  influences  of  the  salt-laden  sea-breezes. 

On  grass  lands  salt  is  best  used  as  a  compost  with 
vegetable  matter;  and  in  that  form  it  may  be  given  at 
the  rate  of  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  jiounds 
per  acre.  On  arable  land  it  is  also  best  given  as  a  com- 
post. If  used  alone,  however,  the  application  should  not 
exceed  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  j)ounds  per  acre, 
and  it  should  be  well  harrowed  in. 

The  destructive  action  of  salt  in  excess  on  vegetation 
is  turned  to  account  sometimes  in  destroying  weeds  on 
garden  paths,  etc.  It  can  also  be  taken  advantage  of  at 
times  as  a  corrective  to  the  over-stimulating  effects  of 
nitrate  of  soda  and  other  manures  on  wheat  crops.  When 
these  are  running  too  much  to  straw  an  application  of 
salt  may  check  this  tendency  and  prevent  lodging. 

Soot  contains  a  small  percentage  of  nitrogen.  Used 
alone  it  makes  an  excellent  top-dressing  for  spring  wheat 
and  grass;  being  quick  in  its  action  without  being  too 
stimulating.  It  has  also  the  property  of  destroying  slugs 
on  winter  wheat;  and  it  keeps  off  other  pests. 

Vc^ctablc-ashcs. — Kelp,  the  burnt  ash  of  sea-weed, 
contains  a  large  quantity  of  potash.  It  takes  twenty- 
four  tons  of  sea-weed  to  produce  one  ton  of  kelp. 

Wood-ashes  are  rich  in  potash,  and  constitute  a  valu- 
able manure  for  potatoes  and  turnips.  They  are  used  to 
the  best  advantage  when  mixed  with  superphosphate 
and  other  manures. 


AUXILIARY   AK"D    EXCEPTION^AL   MAJEURES.  93 

Cotton-cakc-dust,  and  Malt-dust, — The  value  of  these 
substances  is  chiefly  dependent  on  the  large  quantity  of 
nitrogen  which  they  contain. 

Cotton-cake-dust  has  recently  been  tried  with  extra- 
ordinary effect  on  poor  cotton  lands.  This  could  not  be 
due  altogether  to  the  connection  which  existed  between 
the  chemical  properties  of  the  manure  and  those  of  the 
crop.  Their  value  as  feeding-stuffs  hinders  their  use  as 
manures. 

Fish  refuse  contains  nearly  two  per  cent,  of  nitrogen, 
and  one  per  cent,  of  phos^^horic  acid.  It  answers  well  as 
a  manure  for  both  wheat  and  root  crops  when  made  into  a 
compost  with  its  own  weight  of  soil,  and  allowed  to  de- 
compose before  being  applied.  Fish  guano  is  a  manu- 
facture of  the  refuse  from  oil-pressing  and  fish-curing  es- 
tablishments by  pressure  and  treatment  with  sulphuric 
acid. 

Bullock's  Blood  is  used  on  a  large  scale  as  a  manure, 
but  chiefly  for  mixing  with  other  fertilizers.  In  its 
natural  state  blood  contains  about  three  j^er  cent,  of 
nitrogen;  when  dried  it  contains  twelve  per  cent.  It 
makes  an  excellent  manure  for  turnips  when  mixed  with 
bone-dust  or  phospiiatic  guano;  and,  mixed  with  peat  or 
mould,  may  be  very  advantageously  applied  as  a  top- 
dressing  to  wheat  crops  and  to  grass  land. 

Sea-weed  is  largely  used  as  a  manure  on  some  parts 
of  the  coast.  It  is  especially  suited  for  the  potato  crop, 
which  requires  much  potash — a  large  mineral  constituent 
of  sea-weed.  Sometimes  it  is  used  as  a  top-dressing  to 
grass  land.  The  action  of  sea-weed  is  the  same  as  a  green 
crop  plowed  in.  It  contains  all  the  ordinary  constituents 
of  land  plants.  As  it  putrities  rapidly,  it  forms  a  quick 
manure.     It  is  applied  at  the  rate  of  twenty  to  thirty 


94  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

tons  per  acre.  The  usual  practice  is  to  spread  it  on  the 
soil  and  plow  it  in  ;  but  it  is  occasionally  formed  into  a 
compost  with  earth  and  dung.  The  neighborhood  of  the 
coast  is  in  some  districts  a  distinct  element  in  the  value 
of  the  land,  on  account  of  the  sea- weed  as  a  manure, 
which  is  thus  more  cheaply  obtained. 

Sewage  as  a  Manure. — The  difficulty  in  the  way  of  its 

use  is  its  enormous  bulk  in  proportion  to  its  valuable 
constituents.  A  ton  of  city  sewage  ordinarily  contams 
only  three  pounds  of  solid  matter — viz.,  one  jDound  of 
organic  and  two  pounds  of  mineral  constituents,  the 
former  vieldino^  less  than  three  ounces  of  ammonia,  and 
the  latter  half  an  ounce  of  phosphoric  acid  and  one  and  a 
half  ounces  of  potash  ;  so  that  in  a  ton  or  sewage  there  is 
only  about  five  ounces  of  fertilizing  matter.  One  ton  of 
guano  may  thus  contain  as  much  of  the  food  of  plants  as 
twelve  hundred  tons  of  sewage.  According  to  the  mar- 
ket price  of  the  former  the  theoretical  value  of  the  sewage 
ought  thus  to  be  about  five  cents  per  ton.  Practically, 
however,  there  is  no  comparison  between  the  values  of  the 
two  manures  ;  because  it  is  found  that  ten  or  even  twenty 
times  the  theoretic  equivalent  of  sewage  is  required  to 
produce  the  effect  of  guauo  ;  and  considering  the  far 
greater  cost  of  utilizing  the  sewage,  only  a  nominal  price 
can  be  put  upon  it. 

There  are  several  methods  of  utilizins:  sewasfe  : — 
Irrigation  is  the  method  which  has  been  most  largely 
practised.  It  consists  in  distributing  the  sewage  over  the 
surface  of  well-drained  fields,  from  reservoirs  into  which 
the  sewers  empty,  or  into  which  their  contents  are 
pum]ied. 

In  the  dry-earth  system  the  sewage  nuisance  is  dealt 
with  house  by  house.  Dry  pulverized  earth  in  movable 
boxes  in  privies  is  made  the  receptacle  in  which  excreta 
arc  covered  and  rendered  harmless,  being  still  serviceable 


AUXILIARY   AND   EXCEPTIOJ^AL   MANURES.  95 

for  gardens  and  fields.  The  system,  lit  enough  for  insti- 
tutions where  discipline  prevails,  is  hardly  applicable  to 
large  towns,  where  it  would  entail  the  bringing  in  dry 
earth  to  the  amount  of  from  five  to  ten  pounds  for  each 
individual  daily. 

The  Liquid  Manure  of  the  Farm  is  the  drainings  or 
the  washings  from  the  farm-yard  manure.  The  best  use 
that  can  be  made  of  it  probably  is  to  return  it  to  the  dung 
heap,  where  means  should  be  devised  for  its  absorption  or 
retention.  If  allowed  to  flow  away  from  the  cattle  sheds 
or  from  the  manure  pile,  it  should  be  collected  m  tanks. 
From  the  coUectinsr  tanks  it  mav  be  distributed  over  the 
land  by  a  watering-cart,  when  the  area  is  small.  On  a 
larger  scale,  pipes  are  laid  underground  in  the  field,  and 
the  manure  distributed  either  by  gravitation  or  by  pump- 
ing. The  gravitation  system  is  the  only  practicable  one 
on  the  score  of  expense.  Liquid  manure  is  chiefly  valu- 
able for  the  rapidity  with  which  it  produces  its  effect.  It 
is  well  adapted  to  light  sandy  soils,  but  a  failure  on  heavy 
clays.  It  is  also  more  suitable  for  grass  and  root  crops 
than  for  grain  crops.  By  its  use  grass  may  be  cut  six  or 
eight  times  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

Application  of  Manures. — The  tendency  of  modern 
practice  in  manuring  is  to  use  readily  soluble  and  quick- 
acting  manures,  but  to  use  them  sparingly  at  a  time. 
Little  and  often  is  the  rule. 

In  applying  fertilizers  of  a  soluble  character,  it  is  found 
economical  to  manure  the  plant  rather  than  the  soil. 
The  practice  is  especially  applicable  to  mangels,  cab- 
bages, and  other  drilled  crops,  where  the  plants  are  a  con- 
siderable distance  apart  in  the  rows.  The  manure  is  de- 
posited by  the  drill  along  the  line  of  each  plant  row,  and 
immediately  covered  in.  Manures  which  are  not  so  read- 
ily soluble  produce  the  best  effect  when  intimately  mixed 


96  THE   SOIL  OF   THE   FARM. 

with  the  soil.  The  depth  to  which  the  manure  is  turned 
in  should  be  regulated  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  of 
the  manure.  On  a  clay  soil  it  may  be  buried  deeper  with 
advantage  than  on  a  sandy  soil ;  and  a  slow  manure  may 
be  buried  deeper  than  a  soluble  and  quick-acting  manure. 
It  is  not,  however,  good  policy  to  bury  any  manure  very 
deeply.  The  rain  in  a  drained  soil  will  soon  distribute  it 
throughout  the  mass  to  be  fertilized  ;  but  we  must  not 
forget  that  the  producing  power  of  a  soil  is  governed 
more  by  the  mass  of  its  vegetable  bed  than  by  the  meas- 
ure of  its  superficies  ;  and  where  the  subsoil  is  un ma- 
nured the  crop  will  often  be  underfed.  One  of  the  causes 
of  the  failure  of  red  clover  is  traced,  we  believe,  to  the 
dying  off  of  the  roots  when  they  penetrate  beyond  the 
depth  of  available  manure.  Soluble  manures,  like  nitrate 
of  soda  and  sulphate  of  ammonia,  should  be  put  on  the 
surface  ;  but  undissolved  phosphate,  and  even  guano,  is 
best  when  just  covered  with  the  soil.  Stiff  clays  are  im- 
mensely benefited  by  a  good  dressing  of  fresh  farm-yard 
manure  plowed  under  to  a  tolerable  depth. 

Top- dressings  with  artificial  manures  are  chiefly  to  be 
recommended  for  crops  in  the  grassy  stages  of  their 
growth — wheat  crops  in  spring,  and  grass  lands  at  the 
same  season,  and  especially  m  wet  seasons.  In  sucli  sea- 
sons one  objection  to  this  method  of  apjilying  manure  to 
wheat  is  the  tendency  which  it  produces  in  the  crop  to 
lodge.  Salt  will  i)artly  counteract  this  effect,  and  it  does 
so  by  strengthening  and  to  some  extent  shortening  tlie 
straw  ;  but  this  is  to  counteract  one  of  the  principal  ob- 
jects of  top-dressing.  On  clay  soils,  wliieh  produce  strong 
straw,  the  tendency  to  lodge  is  less  than  on  lighter  soils. 
In  dry  seasons,  on  the  other  hand,  top-dressings  of  artifi- 
cial manures  are  often  inefficient,  and  the  drier  the  cli- 
mate the  less  likely  are  they  to  answer.  But  there  are 
doubtless  circumstances  when  top-dressing  may  be  profit- 
able in  any  season — as  on  poor  soils,  and  where  the  ma- 


AUXTLIAHT    AND   EXCEPTIONAL   MANURES.  97 

nure  is  applied  for  the  first  time  on  newly  reclaimed  land. 
A  top-dressing  of  farm-yard  manure  always  produces  a 
good  effect.  In  a  wet  season  it  is  washed  into  the  soil. 
In  a  dry  one  it  is  often  very  efficacious  as  a  mulch  on 
grass  and  arable  land,  too,  if,  as  is  sometimes  done,  it  be 
applied  to  the  latter  immediately  after  the  croj)  is  put  in, 
and  before  the  plants  come  up. 

Artificial  manures  may  be  applied  either  in  a  dry  or 
liquid  form,  broadcast,  or  in  the  drill.  The  common 
practice  for  root  crops,  beans,  and  peas,  at  least,  is  to 
deposit  in  the  drills  either  by  hand  or  machine;  but  for 
potatoes,  where  roots  are  grown  on  the  ridge,  the  manure 
is  frequently  distributed  broadcast,  previous  to  forming 
the  drills,  when  it  becomes  more  mixed  with  the  soil. 
There  are  now  manure  distributers  in  use  for  this  purpose; 
and  they  are  equally  suitable  for  applying  top-dressings  of 
lis-lit  manures. 

Great  advantage  has  attended  the  use  of  the  water- 
drill  for  sowing  turnip  and  mangel  seed  in  dry  seasons. 
By  applying  the  manure  in  a  liquid  state,  the  germina- 
tion of  the  seed  and  the  subsequent  brairding  can  gener- 
ally be  relied  on.  In  a  dry  climate,  the  water-drill  is 
desirable  in  any  3^ear,  if  root  crops,  which  have  to  be  put 
in  at  the  driest  and  hottest  season,  are  to  be  successfully 
cultivated.  The  same  quantity  of  manure  is  used  as  in 
the  dry  state,  and  the  quantity  of  water  is  regulated  by 
the  condition  of  the  land  and  the  dryness  of  the  atmos- 
j^here.  Superphosphate  and  guano  are  the  most  suitable 
manures  for  the  water-drill. 

The  need  of  providing  for  the  self-maintenance  of  a 
soil  by  good  management  of  the  home  resources  is  hardly 
of  the  urgency  that  it  once  possessed,  now  that  we  have 
helps  in  auxiliary  manures,  formerly  unknown,  at  our 
command,  but  in  economical  agriculture  the  question 
will  always  'oe  important ;  and  the  alternative  of  main- 
taining fertility  by  the  purchase  of  auxiliary  manures 
5 


98 


THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 


(producing  their  whole  effect  almost  at  once)  or  by  pur- 
chases of  food  for  live  stock  and  the  artificial  enrichment 
of  their  manure,  will  always  be  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing for  the  farmer.  The  latter  plan,  which  now  forms 
part  of  all  good  farm  management,  is  theoretically  much 
the  more  economical,  and  practically  much  the  more  en- 
during. 

Considering  the  operations  of  auimal  nutrition  and 
growth  as  a  mere  chemical  process,  the  manure  excreted 
has  a  value  which,  calculated  according  to  the  data  sup- 
plied by  the  manure  market,  is  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  original  market  price  of  the  food.  Sir  John  B. 
Lawes  has  prepared  the  following  table,  giving  the  value 
which  ought  to  be  realized  from  the  manure  derived 
from  different  kinds  of  food; 


Money  rahte 
DescripTion  of  of  the  Manure 

Food.  from  one  ton 

of  each  food. 

Decorticated    cotton  seed 

cake $32.50 

Rape  cake 24.62 

Linseed  cake 23.12 

Common  cotton-seed  cake  19.62 

Beans 18.50 

Linseed 18.25 

Peas 15.62 

Indian  meal 7.75 

Malt  dust 21.37 

Bran 14.50 

Oats 8.75 

Wheat 8.25 

Malt 7.75 


Money  value 
Dei^criplion  of  of  the  Man  ure 

Food.  from  one  tern, 

of  each  food. 

Barley $  7.50 

Clover  hay 11.37 

Meadow  hay 7.62 

Bean  straw 5.12 

Pea  straw 4.68 

Oat  straw 3.37 

Wheat  straw 3. 12 

Barley  straw 2.68 

Potatoes 1 .  75 

Parsnips 1.37 

Manuel  wurzel 1.31 

Swedish  turnips 1.06 

Common  turnips 1.00 

Carrots 1.00 


These  are  the  estimated  values  of  the  food  remnants 
in  the  several  cases  named,  calculated  upon  the  market 
prices  of  the  several  fertilizing  ingredients  wliich  they 
contain  ;  and  if  there  were  no  waste  anywiiere  in  tlie 
management  of  the  manure  before  it  reaches  the  soil,  or 


THE   LOSS   OF   NITKOGEI>r.  99 

in  the  soil  itself  before  it  readies  the  plant,  these  figures 
might  be  realized.  At  present,  they  do  but  give  the 
possible  result  of  an  unattainable  economy,  and  they  can 
only  be  kept  before  us  as  a  goal  at  which  to  aim  rather 
than  as  one  which  we  may  expect  to  reach 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  LOSS  OF  NITROGEN.* 

The  Loss  of  Nitrogen  in  purchased  manures  ;  Tlie  loss  of  Nitrogen  as 

Nitric  Acid. 

B^  J.   B.  LAWES,   LL.D.,   F.  R.  S. 

On  the  Loss  of  Xitrogen  in  Purchased  Manures  when 
Applied  to  Crops. — There  is  one  great  advantage  that 
writers  on  the  subject  of  Agriculture  in  the  United  States 
possess  over  the  same  class  in  Great  Britian;  they  are 
sure  to  obtain  an  impartial  hearing.  In  the  United 
States  a  farmer,  on  coming  across  any  views,  or  state- 
ments on  the  subject  of  agriculture  that  are  new  to  him, 
asks  himself  the  question,  are  these  true;  and,  if  so, 
what  benefit  can  I  derive  from  them?  In  Great  Britain, 
from  the  conflicting  interests  of  the  owner  of  the  land, 
and  the  occupier  who  pays  an  annual  rent  for  the  right  to 
cultivate  it,  the  teachings  of  science  are  likely  to  be 
praised  or  blamed  accordingly  as  they  affect  the  interests 

*  Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most  important  constituents  of  barn-jard  and 
of  artificial  fertilizers.  When  purchased  it  is  the  most  costly  element  in 
fertilizers,  and  whatever  relates  to  its  loss,  and  incidentally  to  its  pres- 
ervation, is  of  great  importance  to  the  farmer.  In  view  of  this,  the  ac- 
counts in  this  chapter  of  some  experiments  at  Rothamsted,  England, 
written  for  the  "American  Agriculturist"  by  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  will  be 
read  with  special  interest. 


100  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

of  the  owner  rather  than  those  of  the  cnltivator  of  the 
soil.  A  few  years  ago,  when  public  attention  was  directed 
to  the  vast  increase  in  the  amount  of  agricultural  pro- 
duce sent  from  the  States  to  England,  there  w^ere  many 
who  put  forward  the  view  that,  by  a  more  liberal  appli- 
cation of  capital  to  the  soil,  we  could  grow  all  the  wheat 
required  to  feed  our  population.  Under  these  circum- 
stances I  thought  it  my  duty  to  caution  tenant  farmers 
against  paying  too  much  attention  to  statements  which 
were  uttered  by  those  who  had  no  experience  in  either 
practical  or  scientific  agriculture.  I  accordingly  delivered 
a  lecture  before  a  farmer's  club,  in  which  I  endeavored  to 
show,  by  the  teaching  of  my  own  experiments,  that  a 
higher  system  of  farming  was  not  so  certain  a  remedy  for 
falling  prices  as  some  wished  them  to  believe. 

In  a  letter  recently  published  in  a  paper  devoted  to 
field  sports,  which  I  have  been  informed  is  much  read  *by 
the  owners  of  land,  a  writer  who  signs  himself  * 'Agri- 
cola,"  makes  the  following  observations:  ''Certain  pam- 
phlets of  Mr.  Lawes  have  done  intolerable  mischief  in 
giving  a  false  coloring  to  the  service  higher  farming  might 
render  in  enabling  British  fanners  to  tide  over  the  pres- 
ent crisis,"  and  he  goes  on  to  say  that  we  have  the  coun- 
terblasts of  M.  Georges  Ville  to  send  all  unsubstantial 
utterances  beyond  the  domain  of  rational  consideration  ! 

If  in  speaking  of  the  immense  influence  which  such  nitro- 
genous manures  as  ammonia,  or  nitric  acid,  produce  upon 
the  growth  of  our  ordinary  cereal  crops,  I  had  pointed  out 
that,  owing  to. the  high  price  of  these  substances,  it  was 
by  no  means  certain  the  increase  in  produce  would  pay 
for  their  application  ;  and  consequently  it  Avould  be  de- 
sirable for  the  United  States  farmer  to  exercise  some 
caution  in  their  use.  I  think  it  is  hardly  possible  to  be- 
lieve, that  any  one  in  the  States  could  suppose  such  a 
caution  would  be  productive  of  evil. 

In  another  case  I  was  rather  amused  at  a  correspon- 


THE   LOSS   OF   KITKOGEI^.  101 

dence  which  I  lately  noticed  betyrcen  M.  Georges  Ville 
and  some  one  who  had  called  his  attention  to  my  views 
with  regard  to  the  sources  of  the  nitrogen  in  tegetation, 
which  were  altogether  antagonistic  to  those  entertained 
by  M.  Ville.  M.  Ville,  in  his  answer,  stated  that  he  had 
heard  of  the  existence  of  a  pamj)hlet  on  the  subject,  but 
that  he  was  so  much  engaged  in  showing  how  foreign 
competition  could  be  best  overcome,  that  he  had  not 
time  to  look  into  it,  but  that  he  would  do  so,  in  order  to 
see  whether  it  would  be  necessary  for  him  to  answer  it 
himself,  or  whether  he  should  leave  the  task  to  one  of  his 
pupils. 

With  regard  to  the  subject  of  nitrogen,  the  views  I  am 
disposed  to  entertain  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  fol- 
lows:— (1)  That  the  soil  and  not  the  atmosphere  is  the 
main  source  of  the  nitrogen  which  we  find  in  our  crops. 
(2)  That  in  the  application  of  manures  containing  ni- 
trogeu,  more  or  less  loss  of  that  substance  is  always  in- 
curred; and  consequently,  if  the  object  is  to  obtain  any 
given  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  produce,  the  application 
in  the  form  of  manure  must  be  largely  in  excess  of  the 
amount  required.  In  everything  relating  to  the  compe- 
tition between  Europe  and  the  United  States;  between 
the  vast  stores  of  untouched  fertility  of  the  one,  and  the 
comparatively  exhausted  stock  of  the  other,  the  questic  n 
of  nitrogen  is  one  of  paramount  importance.  I  am  not 
aware  myself  of  any  writer,  practical  or  scientific,  who 
has  accepted  as  a  fact,  or  even  entertained  the  idea  that, 
in  the  application  of  nitrogen  in  purchased  manures  a 
considerable  loss  is  incurred.  This  loss  in  a  substance  of 
so  costly  a  nature  is  a  matter  of  great  economic  import- 
ance. The  view  generally  held,  I  believe,  is  that  no  loss 
takes  place,  and  further,  that  by  a  small  application  of 
nitrogen,  a  farmer  not  only  recovers  in  the  crop  all  that 
he  has  applied  in  the  manure,  but  a  good  deal  more. 
This,  according  to  M.  Ville,  is  the  economic   function 


102  THE   SOIL  OF  THE   FARM. 

of  our  root  crops,  which,  when  well  supplied  with  min- 
erals, and  a  small  amount  of  ammonia,  get  what  more 
they  require  of  this  element  from  the  atmosphere.  The 
following  are  the  views  of  this  writer  with  regard  to  a  ro- 
tation: *'That  some  crops  demand  all  the  nitrogen  they 
require  to  be  supplied  to  them;  others  require  a  small 
amount,  which  enables  them  to  obtain  a  good  deal  in  ad- 
dition from  the  atmosphere;  while  others  again  can  ob- 
tain the  whole  of  the  nitrogen  they  need  from  the  atmos- 
j)here."  This  explanation  api^ears  so  simple  and  clear 
that  it  seems  quite  a  pity  to  say  anything  that  could 
throw  a  doubt  upon  its  accuracy. 

I  will  now  endeavor  to  show  what  loss  of  the  nitroo'cn 
in  the  manure  has  taken  place  in  our  own  exj^eriments  on 
the  growth  of  potatoes  at  Rothamsted.  In  order  to 
measure  the  effect  of  nitrogen,  and  also  ascertain 
whether  any,  and  if  so  what  amount  of  loss  has  taken 
place,  our  plan  has  been  to  grow  the  crop  continuously, 
with  mineral  manures  alone.  AYe  consider  that  by  this 
means  the  crop  avails  itself  of  all  the  sources  of  nitrogen 
at  its  disposal,  whether  they  be  derived  from  the  soil  or 
the  atmosphere.  When,  in  addition  to  the  same  min- 
erals, nitrogen  in  some  soluble  form  is  applied  to  tlie  po- 
tatoes in  another  experiment,  we  consider  that  the  increase 
in  the  crop  over  that  grown  by  minerals  alone,  is 
due  to  the  nitrogen  of  the  manure;  and  further,  if  we 
deduct  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  crop  grown  by 
minerals  alone,  from  the  amount  contained  in  the  crop 
grown  by  minerals  and  nitrogen,  the  residue,  when  com- 
pared with  the  amount  of  nitrogen  applied  in  the  manure, 
will  give  us  the  measure  of  the  loss.  I  must  observe,  how- 
ever, that  this  experiment  requires  to  be  continued  for  a 
good  many  years  before  any  safe  conclusions  can  be 
drawn;  first,  because  of  the  great  influence  of  favorable 
or  unfavorable  seasons;  and,  secondly,  because  it  is  only 
by  the  aid  of   time  that  we  can  ascertain  whether  the 


THE   LOSS   OF   KITROGEiT.  103 

nitrogen  applied,  but  not  recovered  in  one  crop,  is 
available  for  those  which  succeed.  The  more  favorable 
is  the  season  for  the  growth  of  a  croj:),  the  better 
will  the  crop  be  able  to  avail  itself  of  the  stores 
of  manure  furnished  by  the  soil  and  atmosphere.  At 
Kothamsted,  the  season  of  1881  was  very  favorable  for 
the  growth  of  potatoes;  I  therefore  select  that  year's 
crop,  not  as  indicating  what  might  be  the  average  loss  of 
nitrogen  applied  in  manure,  but  to  show  how  very 
serious  may  be  the  loss,  even  under  exceptionally  favora- 
ble conditions.  The  following  table  gives  the  number  of 
bushels  of  potatoes  of  fifty  pounds  each: 

TABLE. 

Bushels  per  Acre.' 

(1)  Potash,  soda,  magnesia,  superphosphate 265 

(2)  The  same  as  (1)  with  400  lbs.  salts  of  ammouia 481 

Gain  by  addition  of  ammonia 219 

It  is  quite  evident  that  the  mineral  manures  enabled 
the  potatoes  to  gather  up  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen; 
and  that  further  growth  was  only  arrested  for  want  of 
more  nitrogen,  is  evident  by  the  much  larger  crop  grown 
when  a  manure  containing  that  substance  was  used;  this 
fact  is  still  further  confirmed  by  the  analyses  of  the  pota- 
toes grown  by  mineral  manures  alone,  Avhich  show  a  very 
low  percentage  of  nitrogen.  Assuming  that  the  ordi- 
nary potatoes  in  a  dry  state  contain  one  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen,  these  potatoes  contained  one-sixth  less  than 
that  amount,  and  it  is  probable  that  under  such  condi- 
tions no  further  growth  was  possible. 

We  now  come  to  the  loss  of  nitrogen.  The  four  hun- 
dred pounds  of  sulphate  and  muriate  of  ammonia  are 
estimated  to  furnish  about  eighty-five  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen. Taking  the  potatoes  grown  by  mineral  manures 
alone  at  twenty-six  pounds,  we  find  in  those  grown  by 
ammonia  and  minerals  sixty-six  pounds,  or  an  increase 
of  forty  pounds;  but  as  we  supplied  eighty-five  pounds 


104  THE   SOIL   OF  THE   FARM. 

in  the  manure,  we  have  recovered  something  less  than 
fifty  per  cent,  of  the  amount  supplied,  and  this,  too, 
under  the  influence  of  an  unusually  favorable  season! 
Taking  an  average  of  seasons,  it  would  be  much  nearer 
the  truth  to  say  that  n^t  more  than  one- third  of 
the  nitrogen  supplied  is  recovered  in  the  croj).  Pota- 
toes contain  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  dry  matter  in 
every  one  hundred  pounds;  if  we  take  a  bushel  to  weigh 
fifty  pounds,  eight  bushels  will  weigh  four  hundred 
pounds;  which  amount  is  equivalent  to  one  hundred 
pounds  of  dry  matter,  and  will  contam  one  pound  of 
nitrogen. 

To  obtain  this  one  pound  of  nitrogen  in  the  produce, 
we  find  it  necessary  to  apply  three  pounds  in  the  manure, 
and  as  the  nitrogen  costs  about  twent3^-five  cents  per 
pound,  this  large  difference  between  the  amount  supplied 
and  that  recovered  becomes  a  very  serious  consideration. 

I  might  further  observe  that  as  our  experiments  are 
conducted  with  more  care  and  attention  than  could  pos- 
sibly be  given  to  crops  grown  under  the  ordinary  opera- 
tions of  agriculture,  I  do  not  think  it  would  be  safe  to 
reckon  on  a  smaller  loss  than  that  which  we  have  incurred, 
and  the  probability  is  that  it  might  be  much  larger. 

The  general  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these  experi- 
ments, as  well  as  from  those  upon  root  crops  in  general, 
such  as  turnips,  mangels,  and  sugar  beets,  is  that  they  do 
not  obtain  their  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere;  and  that, 
when  supplied  with  that  substance,  the  amount  recovered 
in  the  crop  is  very  much  less  than  that  supplied  in  the 
manure. 

The  Loss  of  Mtroffcn  as  Mtric  Acid.— In  one  of  the 

arable  fields  at  Rothamsted  we  placed,  ten  years  ago, 
three  sraujres,  each  havins:  an  area  of  one  one-thousandth 
of  an  acre,  at  tlie  various  depths  of  twenty,  forty,  und 
sixty  inches  below  the  surface.     The  operation  was  per- 


THE  LOSS   OF  XITROGEiT.  105 

formed  without  any  disturbance  of  the  soil,  and  no  veg- 
etation is  allowed  to  grow  upon  the  area  occupied  by  the 
drain  gauges  themselves.  Close  to  them  is  a  rain 
gauge  of  a  similar  size.  We  obtain  by  this  arrangement 
a  knowledge  of  the  rain-fall,  and  also  of  the  amount  of 
rain  wator  which  passes  through  the  soil  at  different 
depths.  From  time  to  time  analyses  have  been  made  of 
the  water  passing  through  the  soil,  and  latterly  the 
whole  of  the  nitric  acid  and  chlorine  which  the  water 
contained  has  been  determined.  The  results  are  in 
course  of  publication.  I  do  not  propose,  therefore,  on 
the  present  occasion,  to  do  more  than  point  out  the  im- 
portant bearing  these  investigations  have  upon  j)ractical 
agriculture. 

The  whole  history  of  nitric  acid,  as  regards  its  bearing 
upon  vegetation,  is  of  quite  recent  date.  The  time  is 
within  my  own  recollection  when  it  was  a  question  of 
doubt  whether  the  effect  of  nitrate  of  soda  on  vegetation 
was  due  to  the  nitrogen  or  the  soda.  At  the  present 
time  it  may  be  said  that  every  farmer  has  an  interest  in 
nitric  acid,  and  that  a  correct  knowledge  of  its  properties 
and  action,  with  relation  to  our  soil  and  croj^s,  must  be 
the  basis  of  all  agricultural  science. 

The  amount'  of  nitrogen  which  passes  through  the 
Eothamsted  drain  gauges  every  year  since  they  were 
established,  if  calculated  upon  an  acre  of  land,  would  ex- 
ceed forty  pounds  in  weight.  I  have  made  an  estimate 
of  the  nitrogen  contained  in  crops  grown  in  the  United 
States,  taking  as  my  basis  the  average  produce  over  the 
whole  country  for  ten  years,  and  the  amount  removed 
per  acre  would  be  very  much  less  than  this.  Upon  ordi- 
nary arable  land,  therefore,  which  is  not  particularly  fer- 
tile, and  has  remained  iincropped  and  at  rest,  more  nitro- 
gen passes  each  year  through  the  soil  than  we  should  find 
m  an  ordinary  crop  of  grain,  potatoes,  or  hay,  grown  m 
the  States.     Let  us  add  to  this  fact  three  others.     (1.) 


106  THE   SOIL   OF   THE   FARM. 

That  the  water  passing  through  these  gauges  is  much 
richer  in  nitrogen  than  the  rain  which  falls  upon  them. 
(2. )  That  it  is  richer  in  nitrogen  in  the  autumn  than  at 
any  other  time  of  the  year.  (3.)  That  the  drainage 
water  collected  in  another  field,  where  a  crop  of  wheat 
was  in  luxurious  growth,  contained  no  nitric  acid  at  all, 
and  we  have  before  us  a  basis  from  which  some  very  im- 
portant conclusions  can  be  drawn. 

We  learn  that  the  most  important  ingredient  of  the 
food  of  all  plants,  as  also  the  most  expensive  when  used 
artificially,  is  continually  produced  in  our  soils,  is  con- 
tinually moving  about,  continually  being  taken  up  by 
vegetation,  and  continually  being  washed  away  and  lost. 
Such  being  the  case,  it  follows  as  a  necessary  consequence 
that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  that  analysis  has  proved  to 
be  contained  in  our  crojDS  is  not  a  correct  measure  of  the 
exhaustion  of  this  substance,  but  we  must  add  to  it  the 
amount  of  nitric  acid  which  is  lost  from  the  crop  being 
unable  to  take  it  up  from  one  cause  or  another.  I  will 
endeavor  to  explain  my  meaning  by  an  illustration  taken 
from  an  ordinary  operation  in  farming.  A  farmer  sows 
two  fields,  one  with  wheat  only,  one  with  wheat  and 
timothy,  clover,  rye-grass,  or  an  assortment  of  these 
plants.  The  wheat  is  sown  before  the  seeds,  and  takes 
the  largest  share  of  the  light  and  food;  soon  after  bloom- 
ing the  wheat  ceases  to  gather  food  from  the  soil,  and  in 
the  early  summer,  the  crop  being  ripe,  is  carried  away. 
The  seeds  are  thus  relieved  from  a  powerful  antagonist, 
and,  having  complete  possession  of  the  soil,  continue  to 
grow  both  above  and  below  it  until  they  are  stopped  by 
frost;  even  then  it  is  probable  that  tlie  roots,  which  are 
beneath  the  region  of  frost,  grow  and  collect  food. 

Assuming  the  wheat  field  not  sown  with  grass  to  be 
without  weeds  at  the  time  of  harvest,  and  afterwards  (a 
very  improbal^le  assumption,  I  admit,)  it  would  resemble 
the  soil  of  my  drain  gauges,  and  be  subject  to  the  same 


THE   LOSS   OF   KITROGEK.  107 

losses  from  the  washing  out  of  the  nitric  acid  by  the 
winter  rains.  A  high  temperature  is  favorable  to  the 
production  of  nitric  acid  in  our  soil,  and  the  collecting 
power  of  the  wheat  has  ceased  before  the  highest  tem- 
perature of  the  summer  has  been  reached.  We  may 
make  an  imaginary  sum  of  the  result  as  follows : 

Lbs.  of  nitrogen  washed  aicay  per  acre. 

From  soil  without  vegetation 40 

From  soil  with  wheat,  15  lbs.  retained  by  crop 25 

From  soil  with  wheat  and  seeds— retained  by  wheat,  15  lbs.;  by  seeds, 
25  lbs . . .   5 

Green  yegetation  is  the  great  agent  by  which  nitric 
acid  is  converted  into  insoluble  forms;  it  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  before  we  can  assign  to  any  of  our  crops 
their  proper  economic  function  in  a  rotation,  we  must 
take  into  account  both  the  length  of  time  to  which  the 
period  of  their  growth  extends,  and  also  the  range  and 
depth  of  their  roots.  The  tendency  of  the  Eothamsted 
experiments  is  every  year  leading  us  more  and  more  to 
the  conclusion,  that  the  source  of  nitrogen  in  our  crops 
is  to  be  found  in  the  amount  of  that  substance  stored  up 
in  our  soils.  If  further  investigation  should  establish 
this  to  be  absolutely  true,  the  current  irieas  with  regard 
to  the  properties  of  several  of  our  crops  will  require  con- 
siderable modification. 


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